Endnotes

¹ See http://www.cinabelle.com/MAthesis.PDF for 'My Face is Never was' - Exploring the Textual Construction of the Celebrity: Productive Intersections between the Actor, Institutions and Audiences (Vandergraaf, 1999).

² Participatory communication explicitly states that it favors decentralization and democracy, the interests of people at the grassroots, interpretative and bottom-up perspectives, local knowledge systems, two-way communication and education, open -ended cyclical and horizontal processes, dialogue and discussion, involvement, awareness, commitment, conscientization, empowerment and social mobilization (http://www.wacc.org.uk/ publications /md/md1997-2/review_article.html).

³ These studies have tended to recover aesthetic status and social power by casting the work of participating publics as transgressive (against the perceived economic interests of the commercial culture producers and providers, like Napster) or as at least unintended (not considered by producers or providers but also not perceived as harmful , a la Star Trek fan fiction ; see Jenkins 1992).

⁴ Nicholas Negroponte (1995 p.170/1) writes , 'computer networks form a raster of heterogeneous processes, that function as both source and destination.' For example, sending an e-mail means unpacking it, addressing it with headers and sending all the packets over various channels. In between, headers are changed into new ones as well and at its destination the packets are put back together and arranged into an e-mail.

⁵ Watts, 2003, p. 48.

⁶ Film as online entertainment-as-advertisiment ( ˜adverfilm') is the oldest and most linear one - i.e., not (very) interactive - and is rather similar to the old medium in the cinemas, the game is recently remediated as an ad ( ˜advergame') on the Internet and is interactive though structured, while a blog is new, completely computer facilitated and the least structured ( ˜adblogging'). So far ˜adblogging' has not been very successful (e.g., Dr. Pepper, see http://slate.msn.com/id/2081419/), but corporations are still trying to find ways to use blogs to reach their target audience to achieve their ends (See http://www.hyperorg.com/blogger; http://www.ojr.org/ojr/glaser/1055879147.php; http://weblogs.jupiterevents.com/blog/; http://www.blethers.com/blog/archives/00000237.html). Since blogging is a rather upcoming phenomenon on the Internet, there is not a solid, extensive theoretical framework to be built upon. A blog can best be described by having a format of a diary in which its author publishes regularly (preferably daily), is marked by a date-stamp, is of a reverse chronological order, and links to other blogs. There are different forms, e.g., photo blogs, celebrity blogs, and corporate blogs.

⁷ There are many sites that use free games to encourage traffic; advergaming however means that brands are incorporated in the game environment itself. Thus, the ad is central to playing a game. Another interactive trend that might attract attention from the business world, is a cross-over between online games and games to be played in the 'real world.' For example, a ' treasure ' - often a box with a present, a logbook and disposable camera in it - can be found somewhere on the face of the earth but hints and coordinates (global positioning system) are posted on message boards or websites (www.geocaching.nl and www.bookcrossing.com).

⁸ See http://www.americasarmy.com. America's Amry: Operations can now also be played for money, see http://www.ultimatearena.com/games/cmspage.jsp?body=inthenews_merc

⁹ See http://winterjam.european.mtve.com/ss/

¹⁰ See http://cokemusic.com/home/newindex.jsp

¹¹ See http://www.tdkm.com/games/mercedes-benz/

¹² See http://www.bmwfilms.com

¹³ See http://www.completelydifferent.co.uk/collections/wassup/

¹⁴ See http://www.boardsmag.com/screeningroom/commercials/795/

¹⁵ See http://www.terrytate.reebok.com. See also Superbowl XXXVII Community Research and Analysis: Advertising Study pp. 6, 15-16. (http://www.emerging.com/newsletter/bbi/Superbowl_Advertising_Research_021203.pdf)

¹⁶ See http://www.brandrepublic.com/digitalbulletin/news_story.cfm?articleID=181803&Origin=DB04062003

¹⁷ See http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/ aliens /

¹⁸ See also http://www.law.uchicago.edu/Lawecon/WkngPprs_151-175/162.ls.fileswapping.pdf

¹⁹ Ying-Dar Lin (November 1, 2000). P2P Operational and Business Models. Retrieved October 3, 2003, from http://www.cis.nctu.edu.tw/~ydlin (National Chiao Tung University, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Taiwan):

	FTP	NFS	Web	Napster	Gnutella	Freenet
Purpose	Remote file sharing	Local file sharing	Remote file sharing (portal)	File sharing community	Decentralized file sharing community	Decentralized anonymous file sharing
Moderated?	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No
Access control	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
Search	Server-based	Server-based	Server-based	Server-based	P2P	P2P
File transfer	Client/server	Client/server	Client/server	P2P	P2P	P2P
File transfer protocol	FTP	NFS	HTTP, caching	Proprietary	HTTP	Proprietary, encrypted, caching

²⁰ Ibid 16.

²¹ There are no numbers available regarding downloads of the America's Army: Operations at Bittorrent. Source: http://www.movesinstitute.org/openhouse2003slides/Wardynskiopenhouse2003.ppt

²² http://www.nwfusion.com/newsletters/filehsare/2002/01175586.html

²³ Note: within marketing literature c2c and p2p are generally used interchangeable. However, I would like to argue that c2c does not equal p2p. On the contrary, p2p as expression of being both technologically networked and peer-to-peer in organization and it calls into question the usage of concepts such as ˜participatory' agency within a commercial context. Although p2p and c2c are both a means of distribution, their conceptualizations we know nowadays may complicate an equal exchange among concepts. More research is needed.

²⁴ http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.10/fileshare_pr.html

²⁵ Castells (2001).

²⁶ Sellers, J. (2003). Can We Still Be Friendsters? SPIN, November 2003, pp. 101-106.

²⁷ You can sign up on your own, but you need at least one friend before you can start browsing the network.

²⁸ Sellers, J. (2003). Can We Still Be Friendsters? SPIN, November 2003, pp. 101-106.

²⁹ Rosen (2000). p. 7.

³⁰ Rosen (2000) pp. 45-48.

³¹ Note that early adopters are not necessarily hubs or vice versa. See Rosen (2003) p. 52-53.

³² Kotler (2003) p. 186.

³³ For instance, some ethnic groups tend to rely more on peers than others, just like teens.

³⁴ 'The more connected your customers are to each other, the more you depend on their buzz for future business' (Rosen, p. 27).

³⁵ See http://www.americasarmy.com

³⁶ Since 1995 the US Army missed its recruiting goals three times, i.e., in 1999 there had been a shortage of 6,500 recruits (Van der Graaf, S. & Nieborg, D.B. (2003). Together We Brand: Amercia's Army. DIGRA . Forthcoming).

³⁷ See http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jan2001/t01102001_t110army.html

³⁸ See Moves 2002 activity report, www.movesinstitute.org

³⁹ Zyda, M. et al. (January/February 2003). Entertainment R&D for Defense. (pp. 28-36). IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

⁴⁰ See http://www.americasarmy.com/faq.php

⁴¹ Schmitt, B. and Simonson, A. (1997). Marketing Aesthethics: the Strategic Management of Brands, Identity, and Image. New York: The Free Press (p. 16)

⁴² See http://www.americasarmy.com/forum/index.php

⁴³ See http://www.americasarmy.com/features_weblog.php

⁴⁴ Selling through advertising means then creating conditions for contact and experiences on the basis of the advertisement; the relationship between brand and consumer and the relationship between consumer and consumer through the brand. The brand as experience, network, or ˜netbrand' (Geursen, 1994).

⁴⁵ See http://www.completelydifferent.co.uk/collections/wassup/

⁴⁶ See http://www.turboads.comcase_studies/2003features/c20030514.shtml

⁴⁷ It is based on a partnership with AOL Music.

⁴⁸ See http://www.turboads.comcase_studies/2003features/c20030514.shtml

⁴⁹ See http://www. gawker .com/03/03/004875.html

⁵⁰ See http://www.felixsalmon.com/000150.php

⁵¹ No statement was made on puma.com.

⁵² This tactic of businesses to use advertainment for promotion purposes through viral marketing means foremost creating loyalty, but also cutting through information clutter, affording protection from competitive attacks, and saving costs while increasing profits.