| One of the challenges faced by the designers of the Web was dealing with the differences between operating systems. These differences can cause problems with URLs: for example, some operating systems allow spaces in filenames; some don't. Most operating systems won't complain about a # sign in a filename; but in a URL, a # sign indicates that the filename has ended, and a fragment identifier follows . Other special characters, nonalphanumeric characters, and so on, all of which may have a special meaning inside a URL or on another operating system, present similar problems. To solve these problems, characters used in URLs must come from a fixed subset of ASCII, specifically : The characters : / & ? @ # ; $ + = and % may also be used, but only for their specified purposes. If these characters occur as part of a filename, they and all other characters should be encoded. The encoding is very simple. Any characters that are not ASCII numerals, letters, or the punctuation marks specified earlier are converted into bytes and each byte is written as a percent sign followed by two hexadecimal digits. Spaces are a special case because they're so common. Besides being encoded as %20, they can be encoded as a plus sign (+). The plus sign itself is encoded as %2B. The / # = & and ? characters should be encoded when they are used as part of a name , and not as a separator between parts of the URL.  | This scheme doesn't work well in heterogeneous environments with multiple character sets. For example, on a U.S. Windows system, is encoded as %E9. On a U.S. Mac, it's encoded as %8E. The existence of variations is a distinct shortcoming of the current URI specification that should be addressed in the future through Internationalized Resource Identifiers (IRIs). | |
The URL class does not perform encoding or decoding automatically. You can construct URL objects that use illegal ASCII and non-ASCII characters and/or percent escapes. Such characters and escapes are not automatically encoded or decoded when output by methods such as getPath() and toExternalForm() . You are responsible for making sure all such characters are properly encoded in the strings used to construct a URL object. Luckily, Java provides a URLEncoder class to encode strings in this format. Java 1.2 adds a URLDecoder class that can decode strings in this format. Neither of these classes will be instantiated . public class URLDecoder extends Object public class URLEncoder extends Object
7.2.1 URLEncoder In Java 1.3 and earlier, the java.net.URLEncoder class contains a single static method called encode() that encodes a String according to these rules: public static String encode(String s)
This method always uses the default encoding of the platform on which it runs, so it will produce different results on different systems. As a result, Java 1.4 deprecates this method and replaces it with a method that requires you to specify the encoding: public static String encode(String s, String encoding) throws UnsupportedEncodingException
Both variants change any nonalphanumeric characters into % sequences (except the space, underscore , hyphen, period, and asterisk characters). Both also encode all non-ASCII characters. The space is converted into a plus sign. These methods are a little over- aggressive ; they also convert tildes, single quotes, exclamation points, and parentheses to percent escapes, even though they don't absolutely have to. However, this change isn't forbidden by the URL specification, so web browsers deal reasonably with these excessively encoded URLs. Both variants return a new String , suitably encoded. The Java 1.3 encode() method uses the platform's default encoding to calculate percent escapes. This encoding is typically ISO-8859-1 on U.S. Unix systems, Cp1252 on U.S. Windows systems, MacRoman on U.S. Macs, and so on in other locales. Because both encoding and decoding are platform- and locale-specific , this method is annoyingly non-interoperable, which is precisely why it has been deprecated in Java 1.4 in favor of the variant that requires you to specify an encoding. However, if you just pick the platform default encoding, your program will be as platform- and locale-locked as the Java 1.3 version. Instead, you should always pick UTF-8, never anything else. UTF-8 is compatible with the new IRI specification, the URI class, modern web browsers, and more other software than any other encoding you could choose. Example 7-8 is a program that uses URLEncoder.encode() to print various encoded strings. Java 1.4 or later is required to compile and run it. Example 7-8. x-www-form-urlencoded strings import java.net.URLEncoder; import java.io.UnsupportedEncodingException; public class EncoderTest { public static void main(String[] args) { try { System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This string has spaces", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This*string*has*asterisks", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This%string%has%percent%signs", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This+string+has+pluses", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This/string/has/slashes", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This\"string\"has\"quote\"marks", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This:string:has:colons", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This~string~has~tildes", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This(string)has(parentheses)", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This.string.has.periods", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This=string=has=equals=signs", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("This&string&has&ersands", "UTF-8")); System.out.println(URLEncoder.encode("Thisstringhas non-ASCII characters", "UTF-8")); } catch (UnsupportedEncodingException ex) { throw new RuntimeException("Broken VM does not support UTF-8"); } } }
Here is the output. Note that the code needs to be saved in something other than ASCII, and the encoding chosen should be passed as an argument to the compiler to account for the non-ASCII characters in the source code. % javac -encoding UTF8 EncoderTest % java EncoderTest This+string+has+spaces This*string*has*asterisks This%25string%25has%25percent%25signs This%2Bstring%2Bhas%2Bpluses This%2Fstring%2Fhas%2Fslashes This%22string%22has%22quote%22marks This%3Astring%3Ahas%3Acolons This%7Estring%7Ehas%7Etildes This%28string%29has%28parentheses%29 This.string.has.periods This%3Dstring%3Dhas%3Dequals%3Dsigns This%26string%26has%26ampersands This%C3%A9string%C3%A9has%C3%A9non-ASCII+characters
Notice in particular that this method encodes the forward slash, the ampersand, the equals sign, and the colon . It does not attempt to determine how these characters are being used in a URL. Consequently, you have to encode URLs piece by piece rather than encoding an entire URL in one method call. This is an important point, because the most common use of URLEncoder is in preparing query strings for communicating with server-side programs that use GET . For example, suppose you want to encode this query string used for an AltaVista search: pg=q&kl=XX&stype=stext&q=+"Java+I/O"&search.x=38&search.y=3
This code fragment encodes it: String query = URLEncoder.encode("pg=q&kl=XX&stype=stext&q=+\"Java+I/O\"&search.x=38&search.y=3"); System.out.println(query);
Unfortunately, the output is: pg%3Dq%26kl%3DXX%26stype%3Dstext%26q%3D%2B%22Java%2BI%2FO%22%26search .x%3D38%26search.y%3D3
The problem is that URLEncoder.encode() encodes blindly. It can't distinguish between special characters used as part of the URL or query string, like & and = in the previous string, and characters that need to be encoded. Consequently, URLs need to be encoded a piece at a time like this: String query = URLEncoder.encode("pg"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("q"); query += "&"; query += URLEncoder.encode("kl"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("XX"); query += "&"; query += URLEncoder.encode("stype"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("stext"); query += "&"; query += URLEncoder.encode("q"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("\"Java I/O\""); query += "&"; query += URLEncoder.encode("search.x"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("38"); query += "&"; query += URLEncoder.encode("search.y"); query += "="; query += URLEncoder.encode("3"); System.out.println(query);
The output of this is what you actually want: pg=q&kl=XX&stype=stext&q=%2B%22Java+I%2FO%22&search.x=38&search.y=3
Example 7-9 is a QueryString class that uses the URLEncoder to encode successive name and value pairs in a Java object, which will be used for sending data to server-side programs. When you create a QueryString , you can supply the first name-value pair to the constructor as individual strings. To add further pairs, call the add() method, which also takes two strings as arguments and encodes them. The getQuery() method returns the accumulated list of encoded name-value pairs. Example 7-9. -The QueryString class package com.macfaq.net; import java.net.URLEncoder; import java.io.UnsupportedEncodingException; public class QueryString { private StringBuffer query = new StringBuffer(); public QueryString(String name, String value) { encode(name, value); } public synchronized void add(String name, String value) { query.append('&'); encode(name, value); } private synchronized void encode(String name, String value) { try { query.append(URLEncoder.encode(name, "UTF-8")); query.append('='); query.append(URLEncoder.encode(value, "UTF-8")); } catch (UnsupportedEncodingException ex) { throw new RuntimeException("Broken VM does not support UTF-8"); } } public String getQuery() { return query.toString(); } public String toString() { return getQuery(); } }
Using this class, we can now encode the previous example: QueryString qs = new QueryString("pg", "q"); qs.add("kl", "XX"); qs.add("stype", "stext"); qs.add("q", "+\"Java I/O\""); qs.add("search.x", "38"); qs.add("search.y", "3"); String url = "http://www.altavista.com/cgi-bin/query?" + qs; System.out.println(url);
7.2.2 URLDecoder The corresponding URLDecoder class has two static methods that decode strings encoded in x-www-form-url-encoded format. That is, they convert all plus signs to spaces and all percent escapes to their corresponding character: public static String decode(String s) throws Exception public static String decode(String s, String encoding) // Java 1.4 throws UnsupportedEncodingException
The first variant is used in Java 1.3 and 1.2. The second variant is used in Java 1.4 and later. If you have any doubt about which encoding to use, pick UTF-8. It's more likely to be correct than anything else. An IllegalArgumentException may be thrown if the string contains a percent sign that isn't followed by two hexadecimal digits or decodes into an illegal sequence. Then again it may not be. This is implementation-dependent, and what happens when an illegal sequence is detected and does not throw an IllegalArgumentException is undefined. In Sun's JDK 1.4, no exception is thrown and extra bytes with no apparent meaning are added to the undecodable string. This is truly brain-damaged, and possibly a security hole. Since this method does not touch non-escaped characters, you can pass an entire URL to it rather than splitting it into pieces first. For example: String input = "http://www.altavista.com/cgi-bin/" + "query?pg=q&kl=XX&stype=stext&q=%2B%22Java+I%2FO%22&search.x=38&search.y=3"; try { String output = URLDecoder.decode(input, "UTF-8"); System.out.println(output); }
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