Memory

Memory management is a huge topic, and to cover every detail would require a whole volume in itself. My goal in this section is twofold: first, to provide enough information about how SQL Server uses its memory resources so you can determine whether memory is being managed well on your system; and second, to describe the aspects of memory management that you have control over so you can understand when to exert that control.

By default, SQL Server 2005 manages its memory resources almost completely dynamically. When allocating memory, SQL Server must communicate constantly with the operating system, which is one of the reasons the SQLOS layer of the engine is so important.

The Buffer Pool and the Data Cache

The main memory component in SQL Server is the buffer pool. All memory not used by another memory component remains in the buffer pool to be used as a data cache for pages read in from the database files on disk. The buffer manager manages disk I/O functions for bringing data and index pages into the data cache so data can be shared among users. When other components require memory, they can request a buffer from the buffer pool. A buffer is a page in memory that's the same size as a data or index page. You can think of it as a page frame that can hold one page from a database. Most of the buffers taken from the buffer pool for other memory components go to other kinds of memory caches, the largest of which is typically the cache for procedure and query plans, which is usually called the procedure cache.

Occasionally, SQL Server must request contiguous memory in larger blocks than the 8-KB pages that the buffer pool can provide so memory must be allocated from outside the buffer pool. Use of large memory blocks is typically kept to a minimum, so direct calls to the operating system account for a small fraction of SQL Server memory usage.

Access to In-Memory Data Pages

Access to pages in the data cache must be fast. Even with real memory, it would be ridiculously inefficient to scan the whole data cache for a page when you have gigabytes of data. Pages in the data cache are therefore hashed for fast access. Hashing is a technique that uniformly maps a key via a hash function across a set of hash buckets. A hash table is a structure in memory that contains an array of pointers (implemented as a linked list) to the buffer pages. If all the pointers to buffer pages do not fit on a single hash page, a linked list chains to additional hash pages.

Given a dbid-fileno-pageno identifier (a combination of the database ID, file number, and page number), the hash function converts that key to the hash bucket that should be checked; in essence, the hash bucket serves as an index to the specific page needed. By using hashing, even when large amounts of memory are present, SQL Server can find a specific data page in cache with only a few memory reads. Similarly, it takes only a few memory reads for SQL Server to determine that a desired page is not in cache and that it must be read in from disk.

Note

Finding a data page might require that multiple buffers be accessed via the hash buckets chain (linked list). The hash function attempts to uniformly distribute the dbid-fileno-pageno values throughout the available hash buckets. The number of hash buckets is set internally by SQL Server and depends on the total size of the buffer pool.

Managing Pages in the Data Cache

You can use a data page or an index page only if it exists in memory. Therefore, a buffer in the data cache must be available for the page to be read into. Keeping a supply of buffers available for immediate use is an important performance optimization. If a buffer isn't readily available, many memory pages might have to be searched simply to locate a buffer to free up for use as a workspace.

In SQL Server 2005, a single mechanism is responsible both for writing changed pages to disk and for marking as free those pages that have not been referenced for some time. SQL Server maintains a linked list of the addresses of free pages, and any worker needing a buffer page uses the first page of this list.

Every buffer in the data cache has a header that contains information about the last two times the page was referenced and some status information, including whether the page is dirty (has been changed since it was read in to disk). The reference information is used to implement the page replacement policy for the data cache pages, which uses an algorithm called LRU-K.^[1] This algorithm is a great improvement over a strict LRU (Least Recently Used) replacement policy, which has no knowledge of how recently a page was used. It is also an improvement over an LFU (Least Frequently Used) policy involving reference counters because it requires far fewer adjustments by the engine and much less bookkeeping overhead. An LRU-K algorithm keeps track of the last K times a page was referenced and can differentiate between types of pages, such as index and data pages, with different levels of frequency. Its can actually simulate the effect of assigning pages to different buffer pools of specifically tuned sizes. SQL Server 2005 uses a K value of 2, so it keeps track of the two most recent accesses of each buffer page.

^[1] The LRU-K algorithm was introduced by O'Neil, O'Neil, and Weikum, in the Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD Conference, May 1993.

The data cache is periodically scanned from the start to the end. Because the buffer cache is all in memory, these scans are quick and require no I/O. During the scan, a value is associated with each buffer based on it usage history. When the value gets low enough, the dirty page indicator is checked. If the page is dirty, a write is scheduled to write the modifications to disk. Instances of SQL Server use a write-ahead log so the write of the dirty data page is blocked while the log page recording the modification is first written to disk. (I'll discuss logging in much more detail in Chapter 5.) After the modified page has been flushed to disk, or if the page was not dirty to start with, the page is freed. The association between the buffer page and the data page it contains is removed, by removing information about the buffer from the hash table, and the buffer is put on the free list.

Using this algorithm, buffers holding pages that are considered more valuable remain in the active buffer pool while buffers holding pages not referenced often enough eventually return to the free buffer list. The instance of SQL Server determines internally the size of the free buffer list, based on the size of the buffer cache. The size cannot be configured.

The work of scanning the buffer, writing dirty pages, and populating the free buffer list is primarily performed by the individual workers after they have scheduled an asynchronous read and before the read is completed. The worker gets the address of a section of the buffer pool containing 64 buffers from a central data structure in the SQL Server engine. Once the read has been initiated, the worker checks to see whether the free list is too small. (Note that this process has consumed one or more pages of the list for its own read.) If so, the worker searches for buffers to free, examining all 64 buffers, regardless of how many it actually finds to free in that group of 64. If a write must be performed for a dirty buffer in the scanned section, the write is also scheduled.

Each instance of SQL Server also has a lazywriter thread for each NUMA node that scans through the buffer cache associated with that node. The lazywriter thread sleeps for a specific interval of time, and when it wakes up, it examines the size of the free buffer list. If the list is below a certain threshold, which depends on the total size of the buffer pool, the lazywriter thread scans the buffer pool to repopulate the free list. As buffers are added to the free list, they are also written to disk if they are dirty.

When SQL Server uses memory dynamically, it must constantly be aware of the amount of free memory. The lazywriter for each node queries the system periodically to determine the amount of free physical memory available. The lazywriter expands or shrinks the data cache to keep the operating system's free physical memory at 5 megabytes (MB) plus or minus 200 KB to prevent paging. If the operating system has less than 5 MB free, the lazywriter releases memory to the operating system instead of adding it to the free list. If more than 5 MB of physical memory is free, the lazywriter recommits memory to the buffer pool by adding it to the free list. The lazywriter recommits memory to the buffer pool only when it repopulates the free list; a server at rest does not grow its buffer pool.

SQL Server also releases memory to the operating system if it detects that too much paging is taking place. You can tell when SQL Server increases or decreases its total memory use by using the SQL Server Profiler to monitor the Server Memory Change event (in the Server category). An event is generated whenever memory in SQL Server increases or decreases by 1 MB or 5 percent of the maximum server memory, whichever is greater. You can look at the value of the data element called Event Sub Class to see whether the change was an increase or a decrease. An Event Sub Class value of 1 means a memory increase; a value of 2 means a memory decrease. I'll cover the SQL Server Profiler in more detail in Inside Microsoft SQL Server 2005: Query Tuning and Optimization.

Note

Prior to SQL Server 2005, you could mark tables so their pages were never put on the free list and were therefore kept in memory indefinitely. This process is called pinning a table. To pin and unpin, you used the pintable option of the sp_tableoption stored procedure. This command is still available in SQL Server 2005, but it has no effect. Therefore, if you used the pintable option in your SQL Server 2000 code, you don't have to immediately remove it. The SQL Server buffer management algorithm is good enough that you should never need pinning. There is no way in SQL Server 2005 to force a table's pages to stay in cache.

Checkpoints

The checkpoint process also scans the buffer cache periodically and writes any dirty data pages for a particular database to disk. The difference between the checkpoint process and the lazywriter (or the worker threads' management of pages) is that the checkpoint process never puts buffers on the free list. The purpose of the checkpoint process is only to ensure that pages written before a certain time are written to disk, so that the number of dirty pages in memory is always kept to a minimum, which in turn ensures that the length of time SQL Server requires for recovery of a database after a failure is kept to a minimum. In some cases, checkpoints may find few dirty pages to write to disk if most of the dirty pages have been written to disk by the workers or the lazywriters in the period between two checkpoints.

When a checkpoint occurs, SQL Server writes a checkpoint record to the transaction log, which lists all the transactions that are active. This allows the recovery process to build a table containing a list of all the potentially dirty pages. Checkpoints occur automatically at regular intervals but can also be requested manually.

Checkpoints are triggered when:

• A database owner explicitly issues a checkpoint command to perform a checkpoint in that database. In SQL Server 2005, you can run multiple checkpoints (in different databases) concurrently by using the CHECKPOINT command.

• The log is getting full (more than 70 percent of capacity) and the database is in SIMPLE recovery mode. (I'll tell you about recovery modes in Chapter 3.) A checkpoint is triggered to truncate the transaction log and free up space. However, if no space can be freed up, perhaps because of a long-running transaction, no checkpoint occurs.

• A long recovery time is estimated. When recovery time is predicted to be longer than the Recovery Interval configuration option, a checkpoint is triggered. SQL Server 2005 uses a simple metric to predict recovery time because it can recover, or redo, in less time than it took the original operations to run. Thus, if checkpoints are taken at least as often as the recovery interval frequency, recovery completes within the interval. A recovery interval setting of 1 means that checkpoints occur at least every minute as long as transactions are being processed in the database. A minimum amount of work must be done for the automatic checkpoint to fire; this is currently 10 MB of log per minute. In this way, SQL Server doesn't waste time taking checkpoints on idle databases. A default recovery interval of 0 means that SQL Server chooses an appropriate value; for the current version, this is one minute.

• An orderly shutdown of SQL Server is requested, without the NOWAIT option. A checkpoint operation is then run in each database on the instance. An orderly shutdown occurs when you explicitly shut down SQL Server, unless you do so by using the SHUTDOWN WITH NOWAIT command. An orderly shutdown also occurs when the SQL Server service is stopped through Service Control Manager or the net stop command from an operating system prompt. You can also use the sp_configure Recovery Interval option to influence checkpointing frequency, balancing the time to recover vs. any impact on run-time performance. If you're interested in tracing how often checkpoints actually occur, you can start SQL Server with trace flag 3502, which writes information to the SQL Server error log every time a checkpoint occurs.

The checkpoint process goes through the buffer pool, scanning the pages in a non-sequential order, and when it finds a dirty page, it looks to see whether any physically contiguous (on the disk) pages are also dirty so that it can do a large block write. But this means that it might, for example, write buffers 14, 200, 260, and 1000 when it sees that buffer 14 is dirty. (Those pages might have contiguous disk locations even though they're far apart in the buffer pool. In this case, the non-contiguous pages in the buffer pool can be written as a single operation called a gather-write.) The process continues to scan the buffer pool until it gets to page 1000. In some cases, an already written page could potentially be dirty again, and it might need to be written out to disk a second time.

The larger the buffer pool, the greater the chance that a buffer that has already been written will be dirty again before the checkpoint is done. To avoid this, SQL Server uses a bit associated with each buffer called a generation number. At the beginning of a checkpoint, all the bits are toggled to the same value, either all 0's or all 1's. As a checkpoint checks a page, it toggles the generation bit to the opposite value. When the checkpoint comes across a page whose bit has already been toggled, it doesn't write that page. Also, any new pages brought into cache during the checkpoint process get the new generation number so they won't be written during that checkpoint cycle. Any pages already written because they're in proximity to other pages (and are written together in a gather write) aren't written a second time.

Managing Memory in Other Caches

Buffer pool memory that isn't used for the data cache is used for other types of caches, primarily the procedure cache, which actually holds plans for all types of queries, not just procedure plans. The page replacement policy, and the mechanism by which freeable pages are searched for, is quite a bit different than for the data cache.

SQL Server 2005 introduces a new common caching framework that is leveraged by all caches except the data cache. The framework consists of set of stores and the Resource Monitor. There are three types of stores: cache stores, user stores (which don't actually have anything to do with users), and object stores. The procedure cache is the main example of a cache store, and the metadata cache is the prime example of a user store. Both cache stores and user stores use the same LRU mechanism and the same costing algorithm to determine which pages can stay and which can be freed. Object stores, on the other hand, are just pools of memory blocks and don't require LRU or costing. One example of the use of an object store is the SQL Server Network Interface (SNI), which leverages the object store for pooling network buffers. For the rest of this section, my discussion of stores refers only to cache stores and user stores.

The LRU mechanism used by the stores is a straightforward variation of the clock algorithm, which SQL Server 2000 used for all its buffer management. You can imagine a clock hand sweeping through the store, looking at every entry; as it touches each entry, it decreases the cost. Once the cost of an entry reaches 0, the entry can be removed from the cache. The cost is reset whenever an entry is reused. With SQL Server 2000, the cost was based on a common formula for all caches in the store, taking into account the memory usage, the I/O, and the CPUs required to generate the entry initially. The cost is decremented using a formula that simply divides the current value by 2.

Memory management in the stores takes into account both global and local memory management policies. Global policies consider the total memory on the system and enable the running of the clock algorithm across all the caches. Local policies involve looking at one store or cache in isolation and making sure it is not using a disproportionate amount of memory.

To satisfy global and local policies, the SQL Server stores implement two hands: external and internal. Each store has two clock hands, and you can observe these by examining the DMV sys.dm_os_memory_cache_clock_hands. This view contains one internal and one external clock hand for each cache store or user store. The external clock hands implement the global policy, and the internal clock hands implement the local policy. The Resource Monitor is in charge of moving the external hands whenever it notices memory pressure. There are many types of memory pressure, and it is beyond the scope of this book to go into all the details of detecting and troubleshoot memory problems. However, if you take a look at the DMV sys.dm_os_memory_cache_clock_hands, specifically at the removed_last_round_count column, you can look for a very large value (compared to other values). If you notice that value increasing dramatically, that is a strong indication of memory pressure. The companion content for this book contains a comprehensive white paper called "Troubleshooting Performance Problems in SQL Server 2005" that includes many details on tracking down and dealing with memory problems.

The internal clock moves whenever an individual cache needs to be trimmed. SQL Server attempts to keep each cache reasonably sized compared to other caches. The internal clock hands move only in response to activity. If a worker running a task that accesses a cache notices a high number of entries in the cache or notices that the size of the cache is greater than a certain percentage of memory, the internal clock hand for that cache starts up to free up memory for that cache.

The Memory Broker

Because memory is needed by so many components in SQL Server, and to make sure each component uses memory efficiently, Microsoft introduced a Memory Broker late in the development cycle for SQL Server 2005. The Memory Broker's job is to analyze the behavior of SQL Server with respect to memory consumption and to improve dynamic memory distribution. The Memory Broker is a centralized mechanism that dynamically distributes memory between the buffer pool, the query executor, the query optimizer, and all the various caches, and it attempts to adapt its distribution algorithm for different types of workloads. You can think of the Memory Broker as a control mechanism with a feedback loop. It monitors memory demand and consumption by component, and it uses the information it gathers to calculate the optimal memory distribution across all components. It can broadcast this information to the component, which then uses the information to adapt its memory usage. You can monitor Memory Broker behavior by querying the Memory Broker ring buffer:

SELECT * FROM sys.dm_os_ring_buffers WHERE ring_buffer_type = 'RING_BUFFER_MEMORY_BROKER'

The ring buffer for the Memory Broker is updated only when the Memory Broker wants the behavior of a given component to changethat is, to grow, shrink, or remain stable (if it has previously been growing or shrinking).

Sizing Memory

When we talk about SQL Server memory, we're actually talking about more than just the buffer pool. SQL Server memory is actually organized into three sections, and the buffer pool is usually the largest and most frequently used. The buffer pool is used as a set of 8-KB buffers, so any memory that is needed in chunks larger than 8 KB is managed separately. The DMV called sys.dm_os_memory_clerks has a column called multi_pages_kb that shows how much space is used by a memory component outside the buffer pool:

SELECT type, sum(multi_pages_kb) FROM sys.dm_os_memory_clerks WHERE multi_pages_kb != 0 GROUP BY type

If your SQL Server instance is configured to use Address Windowing Extensions (AWE) memory, that can be considered a third memory area. AWE is an API that allows a 32-bit application to access physical memory beyond the 32-bit address limit. Although AWE memory is measured as part of the buffer pool, it must be kept track of separately because only data cache pages can use AWE memory. None of the other memory components, such as the plan cache, can use AWE memory.

Note

If AWE is enabled, the only way to get information about SQL Server's actual memory consumption is by using SQL Server specific counters or DMVs inside the server; you won't get this information from OS-level performance counters.

Sizing the Buffer Pool

When SQL Server starts up, it computes the size of the virtual address space (VAS) of the SQL Server process. Each process running on Windows has its own VAS. The set of all virtual addresses available for process use constitutes the size of the VAS. The size of the VAS depends on the architecture (32- or 64-bit) and the operating system. VAS is just the set of all possible addresses; it might be much greater than the physical memory on the machine.

A 32-bit machine can directly address only 4 GB of memory, and by default, Windows itself reserves the top 2 GB of address space for its own use, which leaves only 2 GB as the maximum size of the VAS for any application, such as SQL Server. You can increase this by enabling a /3GB flag in the system's Boot.ini file, which allows applications to have a VAS of up to 3 GB. If your system has more than 3GB of RAM, the only way a 32-bit machine can get to it is by enabling AWE. One benefit in SQL Server 2005 of using AWE, is that memory pages allocated through the AWE mechanism are considered locked pages and can never be swapped out.

On a 64-bit platform, the AWE Enabled configuration option is present, but its setting is ignored. However, the Windows policy Lock Pages in Memory option is available, although it is disabled by default. This policy determines which accounts can make use of a Windows feature to keep data in physical memory, preventing the system from paging the data to virtual memory on disk. It is recommended that you enable this policy on a 62-bit system.

On 32-bit operating systems, you will have to enable Lock Pages in Memory policy when using AWE. It is recommended that you don't enable the Lock Pages in Memory policy if you are not using AWE. Although SQL Server will ignore this option when AWE is not enabled, other processes on the system may be impacted.

Note

Memory management is much more straightforward on a 64-bit machine, both for SQL Server, which has so much more VAS to work with, and for an administrator, who doesn't have to worry about special operating system flags or even whether to enable AWE. Unless you are working only with very small databases and do not expect to need more than a couple of gigabytes of RAM, you should definitely consider running a 64-bit edition of SQL Server 2005.

Table 2-1 shows the possible memory configurations for various editions of SQL Server 2005.

Table 2-1. SQL Server 2005 Memory Configurations

Configuration	VAS	Max Physical Memory	AWE/Locked Pages Support
Native 32-bit on 32-bit OS	2 GB	64 GB	AWE
with /3GB boot parameter	3 GB	16 GB	AWE
32-bit on x64 OS (WOW)	4 GB	64 GB	AWE
Native 64-bit on x64 OS	8 terabyte	1 terabyte	Locked Pages
Native 64-bit on IA64 OS	7 terabyte	1 terabyte	Locked Pages

In addition to the VAS size, SQL Server also calculates a value called Target Memory, which is the number of 8-KB pages it expects to be able to allocate. If the configuration option Max Server Memory has been set, Target Memory is the lesser of these two values. Target Memory is recomputed periodically, particularly when it gets a memory notification from Windows. A decrease in the number of target pages on a normally loaded server might indicate a response to external physical memory pressure. You can see the number of target pages by using the Performance Monitorexamine the Target Server Pages counter in the SQL Server: Memory Manager object. There is also a DMV called sys.dm_os_sys_info that contains one row of general-purpose SQL Server configuration information, including the following columns:

• physical_memory_in_bytes The amount of physical memory available.

• virtual_memory_in_bytes The amount of virtual memory available to the process in user mode. You can use this value to determine whether SQL Server was started by using a 3-GB switch.

• bpool_commited The total number of buffers with pages that have associated memory. This does not include virtual memory.

• bpool_commit_target The optimum number of buffers in the buffer pool.

• bpool_visible Number of 8-KB buffers in the buffer pool that are directly accessible in the process virtual address space. When not using AWE, when the buffer pool has obtained its memory target (bpool_committed = bpool_commit_target), the value of bpool_visible equals the value of bpool_committed. When using AWE on a 32-bit version of SQL Server, bpool_visible represents the size of the AWE mapping window used to access physical memory allocated by the buffer pool. The size of this mapping window is bound by the process address space and, therefore, the visible amount will be smaller than the committed amount, and can be further reduced by internal components consuming memory for purposes other than database pages. If the value of bpool_visible is too low, you might receive out of memory errors.

Although the VAS is reserved, the physical memory up to the target amount is committed only when that memory is required for the current workload that the SQL Server instance is handling. The instance continues to acquire physical memory as needed to support the workload, based on the users connecting and the requests being processed. The SQL Server instance can continue to commit physical memory until it reaches its target or the operating system indicates that there is no more free memory. If SQL Server is notified by the operating system that there is a shortage of free memory, it frees up memory if it has more memory than the configured value for Min Server Memory. Note that SQL Server does not commit memory equal to Min Server Memory initially. It commits only what it needs and what the operating system can afford. The value for Min Server Memory comes into play only after the buffer pool size goes above that amount, and then SQL Server does not let memory go below that setting.

As other applications are started on a computer running an instance of SQL Server, they consume memory, and SQL Server might need to adjust its target memory. Normally, this should be the only situation in which target memory is less than commit memory, and it should stay that way only until memory can be released. The instance of SQL Server adjusts its memory consumption, if possible. If another application is stopped and more memory becomes available, the instance of SQL Server increases the value of its target memory, allowing the memory allocation to grow when needed.. SQL Server adjusts its target and releases physical memory only when there is pressure to do so. Thus, a server that is busy for a while can commit large amounts of memory that will not necessarily be released if the system becomes quiescent.

Note

There is no special handling of multiple SQL Server instances on the same machine; there is no attempt to balance memory across all instances. They all compete for the same physical memory, so to make sure none of the instances becomes starved for physical memory, you should use the Min and Max Server Memory option on all SQL Server instances on a multiple-instance machine.

Observing Memory Internals

SQL Server 2005 includes several dynamic management objects that provide information about memory and the various caches. Like the dynamic management objects containing information about the schedulers, these objects are primarily intended for use by Customer Support Services to see what SQL Server is doing, but you can use them for the same purpose. To select from these objects, you must have the View Server State permission. Once again, I will list some of the more useful or interesting columns for each object; most of these descriptions are taken from SQL Server 2005 Books Online.

sys.dm_os_memory_clerks

This view returns one row per memory clerk that is currently active in the instance of SQL Server. You can think of a clerk as an accounting unit. Each store described earlier is a clerk, but some clerks are not stores, such as those for the CLR and for full-text search. The following query returns a list of all the types of clerks:

SELECT DISTINCT type FROM sys.dm_os_memory_clerks

Interesting columns include the following:

• single_pages_kb The amount of single-page memory allocated, in kilobytes. This is the amount of memory allocated by using the single-page allocator of a memory node. This single-page allocator steals pages directly from the buffer pool.

• multi_pages_kb The amount of multiple-page memory allocated, in kilobytes. This is the amount of memory allocated by using the multiple-page allocator of the memory nodes. This memory is allocated outside the buffer pool and takes advantage of the virtual allocator of the memory nodes.

• virtual_memory_reserved_kb The amount of virtual memory reserved by a memory clerk. This is the amount of memory reserved directly by the component that uses this clerk. In most situations, only the buffer pool reserves virtual address space directly by using its memory clerk.

• virtual_memory_committed_kb The amount of memory committed by the clerk. The amount of committed memory should always be less than the amount of Reserved Memory.

• awe_allocated_kb The amount of memory allocated by the memory clerk by using AWE. In SQL Server, only buffer pool clerks (MEMORYCLERK_SQLBUFFERPOOL) use this mechanism, and only when AWE is enabled.

sys.dm_os_memory_cache_counters

This view returns a snapshot of the health of each cache of type userstore and cachestore. It provides run-time information about the cache entries allocated, their use, and the source of memory for the cache entries. Interesting columns include the following:

• single_pages_kb The amount of the single page memory allocated, in kilobytes. This is the amount of memory allocated by using the single-page allocator. This refers to the 8-KB pages that are taken directly from the buffer pool for this cache.

• multi_pages_kb The amount of multiple-page memory allocated, in kilobytes. This is the amount of memory allocated by using the multiple-page allocator of the memory node. This memory is allocated outside the buffer pool and takes advantage of the virtual allocator of the memory nodes.

• multi_pages_in_use_kb The amount of multiple-page memory being used, in kilobytes.

• single_pages_in_use_kb The amount of single-page memory being used, in kilobytes.

• entries_count The number of entries in the cache.

• entries_in_use_count: The number of entries in use in the cache.

sys.dm_os_memory_cache_hash_tables

This view returns a row for each active cache in the instance of SQL Server. This view can be joined to sys.dm_os_memory_cache_counters on the cache_address column. Interesting columns include the following:

• buckets_count The number of buckets in the hash table.

• buckets_in_use_count The number of buckets currently being used.

• buckets_min_length The minimum number of cache entries in a bucket.

• buckets_max_length The maximum number of cache entries in a bucket.

• buckets_avg_length The average number of cache entries in each bucket. If this number gets very large, it might indicate that the hashing algorithm is not ideal.

• buckets_avg_scan_hit_length The average number of examined entries in a bucket before the searched-for item was found. As above, a big number might indicate a less-than-optimal cache. You might consider running DBCC FREESYSTEMCACHE to remove all unused entries in the cache stores. You can get more details on this command in Books Online.

sys.dm_os_memory_cache_clock_hands

This DMV, discussed earlier, can be joined to the other cache DMVs using the cache_address column. Interesting columns include the following:

• clock_hand The type of clock hand, either external or internal. Remember that there are two clock hands for every store.

• clock_status The status of the clock hand: suspended or running. A clock hand runs when a corresponding policy kicks in.

• rounds_count The number of rounds the clock hand has made. All the external clock hands should have the same (or close to the same) value in this column.

• removed_all_rounds_count The number of entries removed by the clock hand in all rounds.

Another tool for observing memory use is the command DBCC MEMORYSTATUS, which is greatly enhanced in SQL Server 2005. The book's companion content includes a Knowledge Base article that describes the output from the enhanced command.

NUMA and Memory

As mentioned earlier, one major reason for implementing NUMA is to handle large amounts of memory efficiently. As clock speed and the number of processors increase, it becomes increasingly difficult to reduce the memory latency required to use this additional processing power. Large L3 caches can help alleviate part of the problem, but this is only a limited solution. NUMA is the scalable solution of choice. SQL Server 2005 has been designed to take advantage of NUMA-based computers without requiring any application changes. Keep in mind that the NUMA memory nodes are completely dependent on the hardware NUMA configuration. If you define your own soft-NUMA, as discussed earlier, you will not affect the number of NUMA memory nodes. So, for example, if you have an SMP computer with eight CPUs and you create four soft-NUMA nodes with two CPUs each, you will have only one MEMORY node serving all four NUMA nodes. Soft-NUMA does not provide memory to CPU affinity. However, there is a network I/O thread and a lazywriter thread for each NUMA node, either hard or soft.

The principle reason for using soft-NUMA is to reduce I/O and lazywriter bottlenecks on computers with many CPUs and no hardware NUMA. For instance, on a computer with eight CPUs and no hardware NUMA, you have one I/O thread and one lazywriter thread that could be a bottleneck. Configuring four soft-NUMA nodes provides four I/O threads and four lazywriter threads, which could definitely help performance.

If you have multiple NUMA memory nodes, SQL Server divides the total target memory evenly among all the nodes. So if you have 10 GB of physical memory and four NUMA nodes and SQL Server determines a 10-GB target memory value, all nodes will eventually allocate and use 2.5 GB of memory as if it were their own. In fact, if one of the nodes has less memory than another, it must use memory from other one to reach its 2.5 GB. This memory is called foreign memory. Foreign memory is considered local, so if SQL Server has readjusted its target memory and each node needs to release some, no attempt will be made to free up foreign pages first. In addition, if SQL Server has been configured to run on a subset of the available NUMA nodes, the target memory will not automatically be limited to the memory on those nodes. You must set the Max Server Memory value to limit the amount of memory.

In general, the NUMA nodes function largely independently of each other, but that is not always the case. For example, if a worker running on a node N1 needs to access a database page that is already in node N2's memory, it does so by accessing N2's memory, which is called non-local memory. Note that non-local is not the same as foreign memory.

Read-Ahead

SQL Server supports a mechanism called read-ahead whereby the need for data and index pages can be anticipated and pages can be brought into the buffer pool before they're actually needed. This performance optimization allows large amounts of data to be processed effectively. Read-ahead is managed completely internally, and no configuration adjustments are necessary.

There are two kinds of read-ahead: one for table scans on heaps and one for index ranges. For table scans, the table's allocation structures are consulted to read the table in disk order. Up to 32 extents (32 * 8 pages/extent * 8192 bytes/page = 2 MB) of read-ahead may be outstanding at a time. Four extents (32 pages) at a time are read with a single 256-KB scatter read. If the table is spread across multiple files in a file group, SQL Server will attempt to distribute the read-ahead activity across the files evenly.

For index ranges, the scan uses level one of the index structure (the level immediately above the leaf) to determine which pages to read ahead. When the index scan starts, read-ahead is invoked on the initial descent of the index to minimize the number of reads performed. For instance, for a scan of WHERE state = 'WA', read-ahead searches the index for key = 'WA', and it can tell from the level-one nodes how many pages must be examined to satisfy the scan. If the anticipated number of pages is small, all the pages are requested by the initial read-ahead; if the pages are non-contiguous, they're fetched in scatter reads. If the range contains a large number of pages, the initial read-ahead is performed and thereafter every time another 16 pages are consumed by the scan, the index is consulted to read in another 16 pages. This has several interesting effects:

• Small ranges can be processed in a single read at the data page level whenever the index is contiguous.

• The scan range (for example, state = 'WA') can be used to prevent reading ahead of pages that won't be used because this information is available in the index.

• Read-ahead is not slowed by having to follow page linkages at the data page level. (Read-ahead can be done on both clustered indexes and nonclustered indexes.)

As you can see, memory management in SQL Server is a huge topic, and I've provided you with only a basic understanding of how SQL Server uses memory. This information should give you a start in interpreting the wealth of information valuable through the DMVs and troubleshooting. The companion content includes a white paper that offers many more troubleshooting ideas and scenarios.