Evolution of the Portable Computer
| Except for a short time at the very beginning, the personal computer revolution has always been accompanied by an equally innovative portable computer revolution. Indeed, in many ways, the evolution of portables has been much more dramatic than that of desktops. Whereas standard desktop computers have not changed markedly in their overall size in more than 20 years, portables have shrunk from the size of a suitcase to the point where one can fit one into a shirt pocket. Pre-PC PortablesSome people date the beginning of the personal computer revolution as August 1981, when the original IBM PC was introduced. This landmark system was preceded, however, by a number of important computers, some of which were portable. LuggablesMost early portable systems started out as nothing more than desktop PCs with integrated CRT displays, keyboards, and of course a handle. These systems weighed between 25 and 50 pounds and were the size of sewing machines or small suitcases. At first, this category was simply labeled as portable. But years later, when significantly smaller laptops appeared, these systems were branded as transportables or luggables. It might be hard for current laptop users to believe this, but it was quite common in the 1980s to see businessmen lugging these 30 to 50-pound behemoths from one appointment to another. For obvious reasons, however, these giant computers were soon supplanted by a new generation of portables that were significantly easier to carry. IBM 5100In September 1975just months after the original personal computer was introduced under the Altair nameIBM introduced its 5100 Portable Computer (see Figure 1.1). Although it was hardly something anyone would happily carry, weighing in at 50 pounds, the 5100 holds the distinction of being the first portable computer in history, and very nearly the first personal computer, period. Figure 1.1. The IBM 5100. (Photo from www.ibm.com.) This device, which was larger than an IBM typewriter, was the result of a project called SCAMP, the goal of which was to create a small computer that could run IBM's APL programming language. The name SCAMP arose from "Special Computer, APL Machine Portable." The IBM 5100 was available in 12 models, which varied in terms of memory size, from 16KB to 64KB. Data storage was supplied by a 1/4-inch tape drive that could store 204KB per tape cartridge. Prices ranged from $8,975 to an amazingly high $19,975. In March 1982, six months after the introduction of the IBM PC, the 5100 was discontinued. The Osborne 1Although the IBM 5100 holds the distinction of being one of the first portables, its stratospheric price tag kept it from being the first popular portable. That distinction would have to wait until April 1981, when the Osborne 1 was introduced. Like the 5100, the Osborne was much heavier than any of today's portables, but it was only half the weight of its predecessor from IBM. One of the most important characteristics of the Osborne was that it was not compatible with the IBM PC. That is quite understandable, however, because the Osborne appeared no less than four months before the IBM PC was announced. Like many pre-PC systems, the Osborne used an 8-bit Z80 processor and ran the CP/M (Control Program for Microprocessors) by Digital Research. Unlike other systems, the Osborne had an ingenious design. In its mobile configuration, it resembled a thick suitcase or a sewing machine. To use it, you would lay the system on its side and fold down its bottom panel, revealing a keyboard, two floppy drives, and an incredibly small CRT display (see Figure 1.2). Figure 1.2. The Osborne 1, the first popular portable computer. Aside from its portability, the Osborne 1 introduced another key feature for personal computers: bundled software. This system was probably the first to be bundled not only with an operating system, but also with word processing and spreadsheet software, as well as a number of utility programs. The list price of the Osborne, including software, was only $1,795, considerably less than most of the desktops of the timea rare point in history when portables cost less than desktops. The Osborne was not the easiest computer to use. Its display was so tinyjust 5 inches measured diagonallythat it could not display a full screen of 25 lines of 80 characters. To read a whole screen of text, users had to manipulate a small knob to scroll the small display around a large virtual display. Despite the bulkiness of the Osborne and its quirky display, many of its users still to this day have fond memories of the device. And although the Osborne itself was soon discontinued, its general design carried on for several more years in products such as the Compaq Portable and the IBM Portable PC. A comparison of these luggable systems can be found later in the book, in Table 1.3. The KayPro IIYet another first for the Osborne was not so fortunate for its manufacturer. The design of the Osborne was so ingenious that it had the honor of being one of the first computers to spawn a clone. Not long after the appearance of the Osborne, a portable called the KayPro II debuted (see Figure 1.3). Figure 1.3. The KayPro II CP/M luggable. (Photo from www.oldcomputers.net.) Although similar in most respects to the original, the KayPro improved on the Osborne by having a larger display and a sturdy metallic case. And, unlike the Osborne 1, the KayPro's monitor could display a full line of 80 characters. LaptopsThe advent of non-CRT (cathode ray tube) flat panel displays allowed the development of the first "laptop" portable computers. Laptops can be characterized as portable systems with an integrated keyboard and flat-panel display in a clamshell design, where the display folds over the keyboard. Early flat-panel displays were smaller than they are today, so the early laptops had the display hinged near the middle of the system. As the display sizes grew, the display eventually became the same size as the keyboard and base of the system, resulting in the hinges being moved to the rear. Up until the mid-'90s, the size of a laptop was largely dictated by the keyboard and other components in the base. By 1995, screen sizes had grown such that the size of the system was then dictated by the display. GRiD Compass 1100Many people consider the GRiD Compass 1100, introduced in late 1982, to be the first laptop computer (see Figure 1.4). The GRiD Compass used a 16-bit 8086 processor combined with an innovative electroluminescent (EL) display, which displayed extremely bright yellow pixels on a black background. The display hinged near the middle of the system base, and folded down to cover the keyboard in what would become standard laptop design. The video circuitry driving the display could generate both textual and graphical images as well. Figure 1.4. The GRiD Compass 1100 laptop. The GRiD Compass introduced several other innovations as well, including 256KB of Intel bubble memory (a type of non-volatile RAM similar to flash memory today) that worked as a RAM disk. The case was made out of magnesium, which was utilized not only for strength but also to help dissipate the heat that the processor and display generated. Unlike modern laptops, the GRiD Compass ran only on AC power. Unfortunately, all of this technology and performance was expensive, selling for $8,150 at the time. As you can imagine, with that price the Compass was not generally used as a mass-market system. In fact, the military and NASA (for use on the Space Shuttle) were the primary users of this system during the '80s. Gavilan SCA prototype of the Gavilan SC was first shown at the National Computer Conference show in May 1983, where it caused quite a stir. The Gavilan was another system that many people consider (along with the GRiD Compass) to be the first true laptop. Like the GRiD Compass, the Gavilan SC used a clamshell design with an 80x8 line text and graphics LCD that folds over the keyboard (see Figure 1.5). However, unlike the GRiD, the Gavilan also had built-in batteries complete with a charger and power management circuitry, the first touchpad (mounted at the base of the screen above the keyboard instead of below it as on modern laptops), a built-in floppy drive (with an optional snap-on second drive), a built-in 300bps modem, an optional snap-on printer, snap-in memory modules, and more. Figure 1.5. The Gavilan SC laptop. (Photo from www.oldcomputers.net.) The Gavilan was remarkably compact (11.4" square by 2.7" thick) for the time and weighed just nine pounds. The Gavilan included a 5MHz 8088 processor, 48KB ROM, and 64KB RAM, expandable with up to four 32KB plug-in capsules of blank memory or applications' ROM-based software packages. Special power management circuits turned off power to various components when they were idle, allowing the built-in NiCad batteries to provide up to eight hours of operation. One of the most advanced features was the first touchpad integrated below the display, combined with a built-in graphical operating system that used a pointer along with pictorial representations of objects such as file drawers, file folders, documents, and a trash basket shown on the screen. Unfortunately the Gavilan was being developed while the microfloppy drive standards were up in the air, and several different incompatible drives were being developed, including a 3" drive by Hitachi, a 3.25" drive by Tabor, a 3.5" drive by Sony, and a 4" drive by IBM. To sort all of these incompatible formats out, a consortium called the Microfloppy Industry Committee (MIC) was formed in May 1982 to create a standard microfloppy drive. They took the Sony 3.5" drive; modified the media format, casing, and shutter; and changed the interface to the same Shugart interface used on 5.25" drives. In January 1983, Sony and the MIC agreed on the format, and the 3.5" microfloppy as we know it today was established. When the Gavilan was first developed it was to use the Hitachi 3" drive, but right as the prototype was being finished, it was clear the industry was going with the Sony/MIC 3.5" drive instead. In fact, Hitachi cancelled their 3" drive, forcing Gavilan to redesign the computer to accept the 3.5" format. This redesign combined with cash flow problems caused Gavilan to file for bankruptcy before the system could be introduced. After the floppy drive was changed, the Gavilan SC was finally released in June 1984 for $3,995, but by then the company was under Chapter 11 protection, from which they never fully recovered. NotebooksNotebook computers were originally described as being truly notebook sized, and generally used a fixed screen that did not fold over the keyboard like the clamshell design used for laptops. Later the notebook designation was used to describe a smaller, thinner, or lighter laptop (regardless of the actual size relation to a true paper notebook). Today the definition of notebook is muddled to the point where the term is used interchangeably with the term laptop. In fact, pretty much all modern laptop computers are referred to as notebooks by their manufacturers, regardless of the actual size, thickness, or weight. Throughout the book, you'll see that I prefer the term laptop instead of notebook, since I find it more descriptive, and especially more intuitive for others to understand. Epson HX-20Epson introduced the HX-20 in November 1982, and advertised it as the world's first "notebook size" portable computer. The HX-20 is 8.5" by 11.4" and 1.7" thick, which is almost exactly the length and width of a standard sheet of notebook paper, thus making the notebook claim entirely true (see Figure 1.6). It also weighed only 4 lbs., much lighter than the typical laptop. Figure 1.6. The Epson HX-20 notebook. (Photo from www.oldcomputers.net.) The HX-20 uses two 6301 processors from Hitachi. The 6301 is an 8-bit CMOS (Complimentary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) chip compatible with the Motorola 6800, running at a clock rate of 0.614MHz. The two processors each operate different areas of the system, and overall use very little power due to their CMOS design. This allowed the HX-20 to run for 50 hours using its built-in NiCad batteries, which is incredible by today's standards. The batteries required about eight hours to fully recharge. The HX-20 included a full-sized keyboard and a tiny integrated 20 character by 4 line display that can also display graphics using 120x32 pixel resolution. The HX-20 also had a built-in speaker, four-octave sound generator, time and date clock, and a serial port. An optional micro-cassette drive for program or data storage fit into a special compartment to the right of the display. The system came with 32KB of ROM (containing Microsoft BASIC as well as the operating system) and 16KB of RAM. An optional expansion unit that clips on the side of the case held an extra 16KB of RAM and/or 32KB of ROM. The HX-20 also included a built-in dot-matrix printer that prints graphics and text on plain paper rolls. The HX-20 sold for $795. Although the HX-20 could be used as a general-purpose computer (it included a built-in word processor among other software), the small screen made it difficult to use. I did however see many HX-20s over the years being used by sales people as field sales estimators or behind the front desks of many hotels as room card-key managers. The Radio Shack Model 100In March 1983, Radio Shack introduced its TRS-80 Model 100, a $799 notebook computer similar to the Epson HX-20, but with a larger display. Although this computer was not PC compatible, it attracted a significant following owing to its portability and ease of use. The Model 100 was the size of a sheet of paper and about 2 inches thick (see Figure 1.7). Half of its top panel was devoted to an LCD screen, the other half to a keyboard. Inside the system was an 8-bit processor along with 832MB of RAM. An additional 32MB of ROM was loaded with a rudimentary operating system and a simple word processing program. Power was supplied by a set of four large disposable batteries. Figure 1.7. The Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 100, one of the first laptops. By far the most impressive feature of the Model 100 was its weight of just 3 pounds. The system served as an adequately functional and highly portable word processing machine that became standard equipment for many journalists in the 1980s. Its keyboard lacked many of the keys found on the IBM PC, but the keys that the Model 100 did have were all full size and easy to use. As useful as the Model 100 was, it had one glaring and increasingly important limitation. Yes, the notebook had proven to be a useful tool, but now that device had to be PC compatible. Early PC PortablesIn August 1981, the personal computer industry completely changed. The reason for this metamorphosis was the introduction of the IBM Personal Computer. As popular as the Osborne and other early portables were, their days were now numbered. It soon became clear that anything that was not compatible with the IBM PC would soon become obsolete. The only problem was that the IBM PC was not portable; however, other companies as well as IBM would rectify that by introducing many different portable systems fully compatible with the IBM PC. PC LuggablesThe first PC compatible portables were entire desktop PCs complete with a CRT and keyboard, stuffed into a suitcase or sewing machine sized chassis with a handle attached, and weighing between 30 and 50 lbs (13.6 to 22.6 kg). It seems almost laughable today, but many people (myself included) carried these systems around regularly. Although the size and weight were a drawback, these systems had all of the power of the desktop systems they were compatible with, since they essentially used the same desktop based components. The following section discusses the more notable of these machines. The Compaq PortableThe first major milestone in PC portability practically defined the category single-handedly. Announced in November of 1982just a little more than a year after the IBM PCthe Compaq was not only the first portable PC clone, it was the first PC clone period. In general shape, the Compaq resembled the Osborne and KayPro luggables (see Figure 1.8). To use the system, you laid it on its side and unlatched the bottom panel, which was the keyboard. Removing the keyboard revealed the Compaq's green CRT display and a pair of full-height floppy disk drives. Figure 1.8. The Compaq PC, the first PC-compatible portable. Inside the Compaq was the same processor, memory, and expansion slots as in the original IBM PC. Unlike some other manufacturers of the time, Compaq was able to duplicate the PC's internal BIOS code without violating IBM's copyright. The result was a system that was one of the very few that could run all the software being developed for the IBM PC. It is debatable whether the most important aspect of the Compaq was its portability or its compatibility. Needless to say, the combination of these two was very attractive and ended up propelling a tiny three-person startup company into what eventually became the largest personal computer company in the world. The IBM Portable PCIn February 1984, almost 15 months after the Compaq Portable was announced, IBM introduced its own portablein effect cloning the cloner. The IBM Portable Personal Computer 5155 Model 68 looked similar in size and shape to the Compaq system, being a small suitcase-sized system that weighed 30 pounds. Inside it had a built-in 9-inch, amber composite video monitor; one 5 1/4-inch, half-height floppy disk drive (with space for an optional second drive); an 83-key keyboard; two adapter cards; a floppy disk controller; and a CGA-style video adapter. The resolution of this adapter was only 640 by 200 with just two shades of gray. The unit also had a universal-voltage power supply capable of overseas operation on 220V power. The list price for the 30-pound computer was $4,225.00. Figure 1.9 shows the Portable PC exterior. Figure 1.9. The IBM Portable PC. The system board used in the IBM Portable PC was the same board used in the original IBM XTthe company's first PC equipped with a hard drive. The Portable PC lacked the hard drive, but did come with 256KB of memory. Because the XT motherboard was used, eight expansion slots were available for the connection of adapter boards, although only two slots could accept a full-length adapter card due to internal space restrictions. The power supply was basically the same as an XT's, with physical changes for portability and a small amount of power drawn to run the built-in monitor. In function and performance, the Portable PC system unit had identical characteristics to an equivalently configured IBM XT system unit. Figure 1.10 shows the Portable PC interior view. Figure 1.10. An interior view of the IBM Portable PC. IBM withdrew the Portable PC from the market on April 2, 1986, a date that coincides with the introduction of the IBM Convertible laptop PC, which is described later in this chapter. The Portable PC was not popular in the computer marketplace, although it compared to, and in many ways was better than, the highly successful Compaq Portable available at the time. The system was largely misunderstood by the trade press and user community. Most did not understand that the system was really a portable XT and had more to offer than the standard IBM PC. Maybe if IBM had called the system the Portable XT, it would have sold better! Unfortunately, while Compaq introduced successive portable systems with hard disks and 286 and 386 processors, IBM never truly expanded on their original Portable PC concept. The Portable PC system unit had these major functional components:
The following is the complete technical data for the Portable PC system:
Table 1.2 shows the common part numbers for the configurable options available for the Portable PC.
The disk drive used in the Portable PC was a half-height drive, the same unit specified for use in the IBM PCjr, a short-lived consumer-oriented desktop. When the Portable PC was introduced, the PCjr was the only other IBM sold with the same half-height drive. Table 1.3 lists and summarizes three luggable systems: the original Osborne CP/M luggable as well as the two most popular PC luggables.
PC Lunchbox/Briefcase ModelsThe next major category of portable computer was considerably smaller in size, but still large by today's standards. In size and shape, these computers resembled small briefcases or the lunchboxes that children once brought to school, ergo the category name. The design of lunchbox computers was quite simple. One side of the lunchbox was taken up by a display. The keyboard module could be attached over the screen, protecting both it and the keyboard during travel. To accomplish this relatively small size, lunchbox designers took advantage of a new technology that was just becoming available: flat-panel displays, such as high-contrast gas-plasma displays and electroluminescent panels. These panels were considerably smaller than the CRT displays on the luggable systems. They also had very high contrast. The downside, however, of these early flat-panel displays was their cost. Lunchbox computers equipped with these screens were incredibly expensive, in some cases carrying a price tag close to $20,000. That would be equivalent to at least $25,000$30,000 in today's dollars. Another cost of these early flat-panel displays was their power requirements. The electrical appetite of these screens was so great that few if any of these systems could survive on battery power alone. Instead, they required a nearby AC outlet. The development of an affordable battery-powered portable PC would have to wait until large, low-power, high-resolution LCD displays could be efficiently produced. As limiting as the AC power cord was, the availability of this plentiful power coupled with the fairly large size of these systems had the benefit of making it easier for designers to incorporate the latest and most powerful computer components available. Instead of being required to wait for a low-power CMOS version of the Intel 80386 processor to become available, or for a super-thin hard drive to be ready, designers could use essentially the same components that were being incorporated into high-end desktops. The performance difference between desktops and lunchboxes was practically nil. It would be several years before a similar parity would occur between desktops and laptops. The large size of the lunchbox computers provided one additional advantage that has never been fully realized in subsequent generations of advanced laptops and notebook computers. Like the luggable computers, the lunchboxes had a desktop-style expansion bus. Because of this, upgrading or customizing a lunchbox was almost as easy as it was on a desktop. If your application required a special AT-style expansion card, the lunchbox was your portable of choice. Laptop manufacturers try to emulate this capability by providing docking stations with one or more desktop-style expansion bus slots. But these docking stations are not portable at all. IBM P70/P75Two of the most notable of the lunchbox computers were the P70 and P75 from IBM. Both of these systems were portable variations of IBM's PS/2 Model 70 desktop introduced in 1987. Because good-quality LCD screens were not yet available, these portables used orange-and-black gas-plasma displays. Both the P70 and P75 were quite large, being more like briefcases than lunchboxes. Inside, their high-power components were a match for any desktop. Table 1.4 contains a list of the specifications for both systems.
A number of other companies, including Compaq, offered lunchbox computers for several years. As the much smaller laptops became more powerful, however, the need for lunchbox systems waned. Nevertheless, high-powered lunchbox/briefcase portables are still on the market from companies such as Dolch Computer Systems (www.dolch.com), and are prized for both their expansion capabilities and their ruggedness. Dolch FlexPACOne example of a modern lunchbox is the FlexPAC ruggedized portable from Dolch Computer Systems (see Figure 1.11). Figure 1.11. The Dolch FlexPAC is an example of a powerful lunchbox computer that is still available. (Photo from www.dolch.com.) This lunchbox weighs no less than 23 pounds and measures 16x11x9.8 inches in size. Inside there is room not only for a 14.1-inch screen, a Pentium 4 processor, one or two high capacity hard drives, a floppy drive, a CD-ROM/DVD drive, and up to 2GB of memory, but also for six desktop-style PCI slots, one of which doubles as an ISA slot. PC LaptopsLuggable and lunchbox computers were certainly powerful, but anyone who has carried one of these devices has probably yearned for something considerably lighter. That something was the laptopa PC-compatible laptop. The IBM PC ConvertibleThe first true PC-compatible laptop as we know it appeared in the form of the IBM PC Convertible, which was introduced in April 1986 (see Figure 1.12). This system used a clamshell design, in which the screen folds over the keyboard when the system is being moved. That classic design is still used by almost all portables today. Figure 1.12. The IBM PC Convertible, the first PC-compatible clamshell-style laptop. (Photo from www.ibm.com.) In most other aspects, however, the Convertible was much different from current laptops. Its LCD display was not backlit and had a very flat aspect ratio. Data storage was supplied, not by a hard drive, but by dual 3.5-inch floppy drives. At this point, hard drives were still much too large and too power-hungry to fit into a battery-powered portable. The advent of the Convertible was, in fact, the first time IBM had used 3.5-inch floppies instead of the larger 5.25-inch versions on the older XT and AT desktops. Inside the Convertible was an Intel 80C88 processor, a low-power CMOS version of the same processor used in the original IBM PC five years earlier. Its clock speed also was the same 4.77MHz as on that earlier system. Memory ranged from 256KB to 512KB, a typical amount for computers of that era. Perhaps the most surprising aspect of the Convertible was its weight. This prototype "laptop" tipped the scales at almost 13 pounds. Of course, in the many years since the debut of the Convertible, laptops have undergone countless changes, becoming dramatically slimmer, lighter, faster, and less expensive. In fact, in its own time, the Convertible never gained respect in the marketplace. It is significant in two respects. The first is that the Convertible was the first IBM PC system supplied with 3.5-inch floppy drives. The second is that it marked IBM's entry into the laptop portable system market, a market where IBM now has tremendous success with its ThinkPad systems. The PC Convertible was available in two models. The Model 2 had a CMOS 80C88 4.77MHz microprocessor, 64KB of ROM, 256KB of static RAM, an 80-columnx25-line detachable liquid crystal display (LCD), two 3.5-inch floppy disk drives, a 78-key keyboard, an AC adapter, and a battery pack. Also included were software programs called Application Selector, SystemApps, Tools, Exploring the IBM PC Convertible, and Diagnostics. The Model 22 was the same basic computer as the Model 2 but with the diagnostics software only. You could expand either system to 512KB of RAM by using 128KB RAM memory cards, and you could include an internal 1200bps modem in the system unit. With aftermarket memory expansion, these computers could reach 640KB. Although the unit was painfully slow at 4.77MHz, one notable feature was the use of static memory chips for the system's RAM. Static RAM does not require the refresh signal that normal dynamic RAM (DRAM) requires, which would normally require about 7% of the processor's time in a standard PC or XT system. This means that the Convertible was about 7% faster than an IBM PC or XT, even though they all operated at the same clock speed of 4.77MHz. Because of the increased reliability of the static RAM (compared to DRAM) used in the Convertible, as well as the desire to minimize power consumption, none of the RAM in the Convertible was parity checked. Of course, many users remarked that the best feature of static RAM was its instant-resume capability. Because this type of memory retains its contents even when the system is off, it does not need any time to restore its contents from a disk drive when the user turns the Convertible back on. At the back of each system unit was an extendable bus interface. This 72-pin connector enabled you to attach the following options to the base unit: a printer, a serial or parallel adapter, and a CRT display adapter. Each feature was powered from the system unit. The CRT display adapter operated only when the system was powered from a standard AC adapter. An optional external CRT display or a television set attached through the CRT display adapter required a separate AC power source. Each system unit included a detachable LCD. When the computer was being used on a desk, the LCD screen could be replaced by an external monitor. When the LCD was latched in the closed position, it formed a cover for the keyboard and floppy disk drives. Because the LCD was attached with a quick-disconnect connector, you could remove it easily to place the 5140 system unit below an optional IBM 5144 PC Convertible monochrome or IBM 5145 PC Convertible color monitor. During the life of the Convertible, IBM offered three different LCD displays. The first display was a standard LCD, which suffered from problems with contrast and readability. Due to complaints, IBM then changed the LCD to a super-twisted-type LCD display, which had much greater contrast. Finally, in the third LCD, IBM added a fluorescent backlight to the super-twisted LCD display, which not only offered greater contrast but also made the unit usable in low-light situations. Table 1.5 lists some technical specifications for the IBM 5140 PC Convertible system. The weights of the unit and options are listed because weight is an important consideration when you carry a laptop system.
The PC Convertible required PC DOS version 3.2 or later. Previous DOS versions were not supported because they did not support the 3.5-inch 720KB floppy drive. The following list cover the options and special features available for the PC Convertible. Several kinds of options were available, from additional memory to external display adapters, serial/parallel ports, modems, and even printers.
A special printer cable was available that was 22 inches (0.6 meters) long with a custom 72-pin connector attached to each end. With this cable, you could operate the Convertible printer when it was detached from the system unit and placed in a position offering better ease of use and visibility.
Table 1.6 shows the part numbers of the IBM Convertible system units.
The Toshiba T1000Just a year after the appearance of the IBM PC Convertible, another seminal laptop appeared, the Toshiba T1000 (see Figure 1.14). This new system was similar in many respects to the Convertible: it had the same processor, the same amount of memory, and the same floppy-based data-storage drives. But its one difference was a huge one: At approximately 6 pounds it was only half the weight of the Convertible. Because of the lighter weight and smaller design as compared to the clunky PC Convertible from IBM, many people regard the Toshiba T1000 as the first true PC compatible laptop computer. Figure 1.14. The Toshiba T1000. Table 1.7 compares the core features of the three early laptops covered here. The Compaq SLT/286 is covered in the next section.
The Compaq SLT/286Although IBM and Toshiba had already introduced groundbreaking laptops, the computer world was waiting for another shoe to drop. The leading manufacturer of portable computers was still Compaq. As late at 1988, it was still selling its large, bulky luggable and lunchbox computers. Everyone was waiting to see how Compaq would address the burgeoning laptop market. That same year the company satisfied this curiosity by introducing the Compaq SLT/286 (see Figure 1.15). Figure 1.15. The Compaq SLT/286. (Photo from David Hales) Compaq's entry into the laptop market was no lightweight system. It weighed 14 pounds. Even its AC adapter was heavy, weighing almost 2 pounds and often given the nickname brick. The SLT's depth (front to back) was only 8.5 inches, similar to many of the smallest notebooks of today's generation. But its width of 13.5 inches was quite large, and its thickness of over 4 inches was huge. A stack of four of today's thin notebooks would take up less space than this early laptop. Although bulky and heavy by today's standards, the Compaq SLT/286 featured several innovations. Unlike previous laptops, it eschewed the dated Intel 8088 processor, which had been used seven years previously in the original IBM PC, and used instead the faster 80286 chip. Instead of two floppy drives, there was only one plus a 20MB hard drive (with 40MB available as an option). This laptop also featured a new graphics adapter. It used VGA graphics (at a resolution of 640x480), which had been introduced on the IBM PS/2 desktops a year earlier. Along with the better graphics, the SLT had a better screen. Unlike the flattened screens of the PC Convertible and the Toshiba T1000, the Compaq screen had an aspect ratio that was more typical of desktop monitors. Its size was also notable, being all of 10 inches, measured diagonally. Compaq's use of faster processors, hard drives, and better graphics has been imitated by generations of subsequent laptops. In fact, in its general design, the SLT was much closer in appearance to today's notebooks than any previous laptop (refer to Tables 1.8 and the following bulleted list).
One design feature of the Compaq SLT was very innovative, and was rarely copied (unfortunately). The SLT had a detachable keyboard, which meant that the relatively large unit could be left on a desk while only the lightweight keyboard was placed on your lap. Very few laptops today have removable keyboards, although Fujitsu has equipped some of their high performance Celsius mobile workstations with detachable keyboards. Rather than implement a cord, they use modern wireless technology such as Bluetooth to connect to the main system. There were two standard models of the Compaq SLT/286 available: the Model 20, with a 20MB hard drive, and the Model 40, with a 40MB hard drive. Both models had a number of standard features, including the following:
The following options were available for the Compaq SLT/286:
PC NotebooksAs indicated earlier, the term notebook was originally used to describe computers that had the same form-factor as an actual paper notebook, however this definition was eventually modified to describe smaller (as well as thinner or lighter) laptops, and eventually used interchangeably or to even replace the term laptop. Often the terms subnotebook or palmtop are used to describe very small laptops these days as well. Since there are no true standards for these terms, they are unfortunately not as descriptive as they could be. So while I will use the term here to describe any especially small laptop design, the industry now uses the notebook term to describe pretty much any laptop. The NEC UltraLiteAround 1988, NEC introduced a groundbreaking computer called the UltraLite. This clamshell-style portable had no hard drive and not even any floppy drives. Instead, data was stored on a RAM drive. Its greatest strength was its portability. It weighed no more than 4 pounds and its footprint was about the size of a piece of paper, 8.5 by 11 inches. Indeed, in its closed position, this computer was no larger than the thick computer magazines that published reviews of it. In fact, some people thought it looked remarkably like a paper notebook and christened it a notebook computer. Thus began the era of the notebook, a device that to this day still dominates the portable computer marketand, increasingly so, the entire personal computer industry. Note that the dominance of the notebook computer did not come about overnight. The NEC designers had achieved the svelte profile of the UltraLite by jettisoning the hard drive, a compromise most users would not accept. Thus, until the sizes of hard drives diminished to the point where they could easily fit into the notebook form factor, laptops continued to enjoy a welcoming audience. For example, in 1990, two years after the introduction of the notebook computer, users continued to pay as much as $6,000 for laptops that were 3 inches thick and weighed 15 pounds. Eventually, however, when functional notebooks appeared with capacious hard drives and easy-to-read screens, the market for the larger laptops disappeared. In addition to launching a new product category, the NEC UltraLite was notable for another reason. To provide storage options for this super-slim system, NEC designed a docking station, with a good assortment of storage device options and external connectors. Being the first with such a device, NEC trademarked the name Docking Station. In the years since, most other notebook manufacturers have offered docking stations for their notebooks, but never under that exact name. GRiDCASE 1550sxThe GRiDCASE 1550sx was introduced in November 1989. This system was typical for GRiD in the use of a magnesium case and having a fairly high price, but what was really unique about it was the integrated pointing device. The GRiDCASE 1550sx began a revolution in portable pointing devices. Until then, most laptops didn't have an integrated pointing device at all, and those that did used a trackball which was mounted to either the right side of the keyboard or even on the base of the screen. GRiD broke that tradition by including the patented Isopoint pointing device designed by Craig Culver and built by Alps Electric. The Isopoint was used on the GRiDCASE 1550sx portable, and was the first PC laptop pointing device mounted front and center of the keyboard, which made it possible for both right and left-hand users to operate (see Figure 1.16). Isopoint consisted of a cylindrical roller which was manipulated by the thumb. Rolling the cylinder up or down caused the pointer to move up and down, while sliding the roller left or right caused the pointer to move left and right. Buttons mounted on either side functioned as the mouse buttons. Figure 1.16. The GRiDCASE 1550sx Isopoint pointing device. The GRiDCASE 1550sx was touted as the first laptop PC designed for use with Windows by including a built-in ambidextrous pointing device. While the Isopoint did not catch on, by the end of the year after its introduction, virtually all laptops would include some sort of integral pointing device, and most of them would be mounted front and center where they could be reached easily by either hand. The Apple PowerBook 100It might seem out of place to mention an Apple laptop in a book about PC laptops, but Apple did have some influence on PC laptop design. Like IBM, Apple struggled with its early portable systems, introducing two mobile versions of its Macintoshone a luggable model and the other a bulky laptop, both of which were poorly designed and which failed in the marketplace. Then, on its third attempt in late 1991, Apple finally got it right and introduced the PowerBook 100 (see Figure 1.17). Of course, this new laptop was by no means PC compatible, but as with many aspects of the Mac, it would have an influence on portable PCs to follow. Figure 1.17. The Apple Macintosh PowerBook 100. (Photo from www.apple-history.com.) The most striking aspect of the PowerBook was its solution to the pointing device problem. While others such as GRiD had figured out that the pointing device should be front and center, they were still somewhat difficult to use because there was no wrist-rest area. Apple's designers solved that problem by moving the keyboard back, thereby providing both a comfortable rest for the wrists of the user and a convenient place for a pointing device. Most laptops used a clumsy trackball in the beginning, but eventually the trackballs gave way to touchpads. Note that both trackballs and touchpads had been used by other manufacturers well before Apple, but until the PowerBook 100 nobody had built them into a generous wrist-rest area in front of the keyboard. This simple-but-brilliant concept of a pointing device in the center of a wrist-rest is now a standard feature of almost all laptops and notebooks. While built-in trackballs and touchpads meant that a laptop user could now work without plugging in an external mouse, they were still clumsy and inefficient. IBM would solve that problem with the ultimate laptop pointing device, the TrackPoint. IBM's legendary TrackPoint would not only be the most ergonomic, intuitive, and efficient solution, but also allow for the greatest productivity since the user's hands would never need to leave the home row on the keyboard. The ThinkPad 700IBM's first use of the ThinkPad name was for a pen-based tablet system that was demonstrated at the fall Comdex in 1991, and announced for trial use by corporate customers on April 16, 1992. The ThinkPad name was derived from IBM's original "THINK" slogan, which was created by Thomas Watson Sr. in 1914, and used on signs and other materials throughout the company from 1915 to the present. In 1991, a 30+ year veteran IBM employee named Denny Wainright had been assigned to come up with a name for the pen-based tablet system IBM was working on. The idea for the ThinkPad name came when Wainright noticed the small IBM notebook he had been carrying around in his shirt pocket for more than 30 years, which was a small black leather notebook with the word "THINK" embossed on the cover. The ThinkPad name seemed perfect for the new computer, which would essentially be an electronic notepad. Unfortunately, delays in the PenPoint operating system from GO Corporation caused the system to be initially offered in a limited private trial release as the Model 2521 ThinkPad. By the time the system was officially released to the general public as the ThinkPad 700T on October 5th, 1992, other more powerful pen-based hardware and operating systems had been announced by competitors. Also the general public showed little interest in pen-based systems, which to this day remain a niche market. So while IBM's first foray into pen-based computing wasn't very successful, one great thing came out of the project, and that is the ThinkPad brand name, which IBM would apply to the then-new line of laptop and notebook computers being developed at the same time as the tablet. Up to that point, IBM had made a number of forays into the portable market with mostly unsuccessful entries. That all was to change with the ThinkPad 700 (see Figure 1.18). Figure 1.18. The IBM ThinkPad 700, the first of the ThinkPads. On October 5th, 1992 IBM also introduced the first standard ThinkPad notebook computer, the model 700. The 700 featured a 25MHz 486SLC processor and 4MB of RAM standard. It was available in both monochrome and color (700C) versions. The ThinkPad 700C's color screen measures 10.4 inches on the diagonal and used active matrix thin-film transistor technology. It was the largest and best screen available at the time, and was the product of Display Technologies Inc., a joint venture between IBM and Toshiba formed exclusively to produce high-quality color displays. The ThinkPad 700 was also an upgradeable system. The standard 25MHz 486SLC processor was upgradeable to 50MHz. The standard removable 120MB hard disk was upgradeable to 160MB, and the standard 4MB RAM was upgradeable to 16MB. The 700 used a NiMH battery that ran for 2 to 3.8 hours. The 700C weighed 7.6 pounds and cost $4,350. The monochrome model 700 used a smaller 9.5-inch screen and weighed 6.5 pounds. The ThinkPad 700 was available with an 80MB hard disk for $2,750, or with a 120MB drive for $2,950. All of this was packed in a sleek design with a charcoal black exterior, resulting in a system that would go on to eventually win more than 1,100 industry awards and accolades.. Table 1.9 lists the system's specifications.
As with the PowerBook 100, one of the ThinkPad's most notable innovations had to do with its pointing device. But while Apple merely integrated the somewhat clumsy trackball pointing device technology that had previously existed, IBM instead developed an ingenious pointing stick called a TrackPoint that looked like a bright red pencil eraser stuck in the middle of the keyboard. As was the case with the trackball and touchpads, the TrackPoint pointing stick enabled users to move the system's mouse cursor without moving their hands from the keyboard. The TrackPoint, however, had distinct advantages over trackballs and touchpads: you could seamlessly move the pointer across the entire screen without moving your fingers off the home row, and without making multiple jerky finger movements. The TrackPoint was a boon to those who touch-type and allowed far greater pointing and typing speed and efficiency compared to any other integrated pointing device. Since the advent of the TrackPoint in the first ThinkPad 700, IBM has licensed the technology to several other vendors for use in their systems. Both IBM and others offer TrackPoint-equipped systems, most of which now include a touchpad as a backup for those who may not touch-type. Due to its superior design, the TrackPoint is the longest running pointing device in the industry, being available consistently for longer than any other single type of device except the mouse. Figure 1.19 shows the internal design of the ThinkPad 700 in detail. See Table 1.10 for descriptions of the components. Figure 1.19. A diagram of the IBM ThinkPad 700. (Photo from www.ibm.com.)
This innovative notebook helped IBM to establish ThinkPad as one of the most successful and well-recognized brands in the business, and a ThinkPad was even selected for the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art. SubnotebooksThe smallest portable PCs are usually called subnotebooks, indicating that they are smaller than a notebook. The smallest of these are often called ultralights or ultraportables as well. These systems generally sacrifice performance and features in order to have the smallest possible size. As such they are an excellent alternative for those applications where small size and light weight are paramount. The following section details some of the important subnotebook, ultralight, and ultraportable systems that have been released over the years. ThinkPad 701IBM was always known for their high-quality keyboards, and to this day the ThinkPad keyboards are still among the best in the industry. But the ThinkPad 701 (codenamed "Butterfly" while under development) had a very special keyboard that became legendary for its innovative design. The ThinkPad 701 was introduced in March 1995 as a 4.5-pound subnotebook system that was only 9.7" by 7.9" by 1.7" thick (smaller than a notebook), yet it included a full-sized keyboard that was 11.25" wide. How is it possible to design a system that is smaller than the built-in keyboard? The answer was an ingenious trick folding keyboard called the Butterfly. When it was opened, two separate keyboard sections would automatically spread out, move over, and then interlock to form a full-sized 85-key keyboard that was almost two inches wider than the unit itself (see Figure 1.20). Of course the keyboard also featured the TrackPoint pointing device. Figure 1.20. The ThinkPad 701 "Butterfly" subnotebook. The innovative butterfly keyboard was invented by a team headed by John Karidis at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, NY, and developed with another team at IBM's Research Triangle Park, NC facility. The ThinkPad 701C also included a 50MHz 486DX2 or a 75MHz DX4 processor; a 10.4-inch diagonal active-matrix screen; a 360MB, 540MB, or 720MB hard drive; 4MB or 8MB of RAM (expandable to 40MB); an infrared port for wireless data transmission; built-in speakers; a microphone; and a 14.4 kbps data/fax modem. Battery life was between 2.5 to 7 hours, and prices were between $1,499 and $3,299 depending on the configuration. Unfortunately, the Butterfly keyboard design was only used on one model, and remained on the market for just over a year before it was discontinued. It was doomed because having a thin system with a larger screen became more important than having such a small system. With larger screens, there was no need for the folding keyboard design, since a normal full-sized keyboard would fit as-is. Still, for what became a niche product, it did fairly well. At the time of introduction, an IBM spokesman said that the company received more pre-production orders for the ThinkPad 701 than any other product in its history. And for its short time on the market, the ThinkPad 701 racked up an impressive 27 design awards and sold 215,000 units, making it the top-selling notebook PC of 1995 according to the market research firm International Data. ThinkPad FirstsThe ThinkPad brand is easily the most successful single brand name in laptops and notebooks, with well over 20 million sold from its inception in October 1992 to 2003. By combining innovation, quality, performance, and style, IBM successfully established the ThinkPad brand as the Cadillac of laptops. ThinkPads replaced the GRiD systems originally used on the Space Shuttle, and have flown on every shuttle mission since Dec. 2, 1993. They are also used on the International Space Station. ThinkPad's success is credited in part to its distinctive design, which has stayed roughly the same since its inception. Industrial designer Richard Sapper designed the ThinkPad's thin black case with beveled edges that give the illusion that the systems are smaller and thinner than they actually are. Notable firsts from development of the ThinkPad line include
Since the ThinkPad brand was sold to Lenovo in 2005, one can hope that the tradition of quality, innovation, performance, and style IBM created with the ThinkPad will endure. Ultralights/UltraportablesThe evolution of notebooks has followed an interesting path. As the internal components of notebooks continued to shrink in size, of course, so did the size of notebooks themselves. Eventually, the sizes of certain notebooks shrunk to a weight of less than 3 pounds, and a new category was bornthe subnotebook, also called an Ultralight. But a small size meant a small keyboard and screen, which further meant that the subnotebook could be difficult to use. Despite some initial excitement for these systems, they failed to attract a significant following, and the category was soon abandoned. The question arose: At long last, had portable computers become so small that some of them were too small? The answer of course was "No." In the past few years, a number of new 3-pound notebooks have appeared. But, to avoid links with a previous failed category, they are no longer called subnotebooks. Now they are called ultralights. The HP 95LXIn April 1991, HP introduced one of the first and probably the most popular handheld computer. The HP 95LX handheld computer was about the size of a videocassette, weighing just 11 oz. and measuring 6.3x3.4x1 inches. The screen could display only 16 lines of 40 characters each, about a third of a typical computer screen. Like many small systems, the screen was not backlit and was therefore hard to read in certain lighting conditions. Inside the 95LX was the equivalent of the original IBM PC. The processor was an Intel 8088, complemented by 512KB of memory that was continually powered by the device's AA batteries. These batteries could power the device for several months. Included in the computer's ROM chips was the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet and the MS-DOS 2.2 operating system. This computer may also have been the first to use infrared for communications with other devices. The list price was $699. The HP 95LX was not alone on the market. It competed with the Poquet PC and the Atari Portfolio, both of which weighed more. The Poquet, for example, tipped the scales at 1 pound. The 95LX was quite popular and even spawned its own magazine. HP continued to sell the 95LX and its successors for a few years. But, as graphics-based operating systems such as Windows became increasingly popular, the need for a DOS-based portable declined. The Toshiba LibrettoAccording to many industry observers, the best example of a handheld computer was the Toshiba Libretto, which was introduced in 1997. The Libretto weighed just under 2 pounds and had a form factor that was about the same as a VHS video cassette. Yet despite the small size, the Libretto was a full-function Windows-based notebook. It featured a built-in hard disk, TFT color screens ranging in size from 6.1 to 7.1 inches, and a tiny keyboard with an integral pointing stick. Although the position of the pointing stick (to the side of the screen) seemed unusual, it made more sense when you actually held the system in your hands and found that the pointing stick was right under one of your thumbs. In external appearance, the Libretto was similar to many of the Windows CE handhelds available around the same time. But unlike the Windows CE handhelds, the Libretto ran a full version of Windows 95 and was compatible with thousands of programs designed for that operating system. Details on the specifications of the various Libretto systems can be found in Table 1.11.
Although a great achievement in miniaturization, the Libretto may have been too successful in its quest for compactness. Chief among complaints about the system was a concern about the tiny keys on the keyboard. For whatever reason, most handheld computerswhether based on Windows 95 or Windows CEdisappeared from the U.S. market a few years after their introduction. Even though the Libretto was not available in the U.S. for several years, Toshiba still sold Librettos in Japan, including versions with English-language operating systems. One of the latest versions is the L5 (see Figure 1.21). This unit is approximately the same size as the original Libretto, but with enhanced components. For example, the L5 features a 10-inch screen with a wide-screen resolution of 1280x600. The screen is backed up by an ATI Mobility Radeon-M graphics accelerator with 8MB of video memory. Figure 1.21. The Toshiba Libretto L5, the latest version of the Libretto handheld computer. (Photo from www.toshiba.com.) More recently, Toshiba has reintroduced the Libretto in the U.S., but this time with a more-powerful Pentium M processor running at 1.2GHz, complemented with 512MB of DDR memory and a 60GB hard disk. Instead of a pointing stick being placed to the right of the screen, it is now in the middle of the wrist-rest area of the keyboard. Personal Recollections of the Portable RevolutionWriting this chapter has brought back several memories. Because of their many advantages, I've used nothing but portables as my main systems since the early '80s. In fact, I have used portable systems even before there were PCs. In the pre-PC days, I used one of the original Osbornes (with its weird 52-character-wide display), as well as the KayPro II, 4, and 10 luggables. As mentioned earlier, these were sewing machinesized portables that ran CP/M, the most popular operating system before Microsoft's MS-DOS existed. My first DOS portable was the original Compaq sewing machinesized portable. From there I graduated to an IBM Portable PC (also sewing machine sized). I very much enjoyed the IBM Portable, which was a fantastic machine, contrary to the press it received at the time. The great thing about the IBM Portable was that it used the same motherboard as the IBM XT, and it was very upgradeable. I installed a 100MB (CDC Wren III 5.25-inch half-height) SCSI hard drive in early 1987, along with a 12MHz 286 processor, a Token Ring network card, an AST SixPack multifunction card, and a number of other devices. I had that thing weighing up to 45 pounds and lugged it over half a million miles of air travel! I'm a sort of speed-walker and hate to slow down for anything. To maximize my throughput when cruising from one airport gate to another, I had perfected a method of "bowling" my briefcase and slinging the computer that allowed me to walk high-speed through an airport terminal. I'd start by carrying my 25-pound briefcase in one arm, and my 45-pound computer in the other. When the weight of the computer became too much for the one arm to bear, I had a system for transferring the briefcase and computer between arms without so much as breaking stride. I would start by sliding my briefcase along the floor about 10 feet in front of me in a bowling motion, then I would heave the 45-pound computer from one hand to the other, and finally snatch up the briefcase with the free hand as I caught up with it along the floor. All of this was done without missing a stride or even slowing down. As you might imagine, switching arms several times was necessary with a 45-pound computer and a long walk through the terminal. I still have two of the old IBM Portables, one of which my wife owned when we got married. After the IBM Portable, I then moved on to a succession of briefcase- or lunchbox-sized portables. Even though laptops and some notebooks were then becoming available, I had to use these larger AC-powered systems because I needed a system with desktop power, performance, and especially storage. Two of these lunchbox systems were the IBM PS/2 P70 (running an Intel 80386) and P75 (equipped with a 486 CPU) in 1989 and 1991. Both of these systems used plasma screens. Into these systems I installed a 320MB SCSI hard drive and then a 1.2GB SCSI hard drive (the largest hard disks available at the time). A 486DX-33 processor was originally soldered into the motherboard of the P75. Nevertheless, in 1992 I removed it and soldered a 486DX2-66 in as an upgrade. That was quite a gamble at the time because a replacement motherboard (actually more of a CPU daughtercard) was $6,000! It is interesting to note that the P75 I used had an original list price of $18,890!making it perhaps the most expensive PC ever sold. When laptops appeared, I kept a close eye on them. I remember playing with the original GRiD Compass at a meeting of the Chicago Computer Society in 1983, and was amazed at the electro-luminescent display and use of internal "bubble" memory. Unfortunately it cost nearly $10,000 and was not PC compatible! The first fully PC compatible laptop, the IBM PC Convertible, was nowhere near powerful enough to replace my suitcase sized Portable PC, nor was the dramatically improved Toshiba T1000 when it came out a year later. The Toshiba T3100 was one of the first 286 processor based laptops with a built-in hard drive, but due to the upgrades that were possible to the luggables, laptops were simply not a viable replacement for me at the time. Because of my need for a portable system with desktop power and storage, the laptops of the 1980s and early 1990s simply couldn't do the job. In 1995, things finally changed. With the appearance of the mobile Pentium processor and the advent of truly high-capacity 2.5-inch drives, laptop and notebook systems finally reached parity with desktop systems in power and storage. Finally, I was able to graduate to a laptop as my primary working system, and I have been using them ever since. I still have strong memories of carrying my 45-pound behemoth, so you can see why even a supposedly "heavy" 10-pound laptop doesn't even make me flinch! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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