Internal Linkages

You'll be building your presentations using the key elements contained in the Story Form. Consider these elements as building blocks, and that these blocks need mortar to hold them together. The glue is a set of narrative tools called linkages: meaningful verbal transitions from one slide to the next and from one part of the presentation to the next .

The importance of linkages is best illustrated by returning to the investment banking conferences that I first described in Chapter 4. I attend these conferences because they let me observe many presentations in a short time. At each conference, I get to see dozens of executives, each of them experienced , poised, and confident speakers , make their management presentations. Yet I see the lion's share of them proceed through each presentation in the same manner: they click to a slide on the screen and say, "Now I'd like to talk about " and then they talk about that slide. Then the presenter clicks to the next slide and says, "Now I'd like to talk about " and they talk about that slide. A click to the next slide, and the presenter says, "Now I'd like to talk about " and so on, throughout the presentation.

This trite phrase is not only a boring clich , it also destroys any continuity or flow. In effect, it makes each slide start the presentation anew. I call this rebooting , and it presents a major problem for the audience. With no context for the diverse ideas and no connection among the ideas, the audience is stranded at the level of the trees, seeing only one tree at a time, with no idea of how one tree relates to another. The missing connections are the verbal glue that the presenter must provide.

These connections take two main forms: Internal Linkages , which are statements that tie together the various parts of your presentation, and External Linkages , which are statements that tie the various parts of your presentation to your audience. We'll cover the Internal Linkages, of which there are 12, in this chapter and save the External Linkages for the next.

12 Internal Linkages

1. Reference the Flow Structure. Make repeated references to your primary Flow Structure as you track through your presentation.

2. Logical Transition. Close your outbound subject; lead in to your inbound subject.

3. Cross-Reference. Make forward and backward references to other subjects in your presentation.

4. Rhetorical Question. Pose a relevant question, and then provide the answer.

5. Recurring Theme. Establish an example or data point early in your presentation, and then make several references to it throughout your presentation.

6. Symmetry. Establish an example or data point early in your presentation, and never mention it again until the end.

7. Mantra. Use a catch phrase or slogan repeatedly.

8. Internal Summary. Pause at major transitions and recapitulate.

9. Enumeration. Present related concepts as a suite and count down through each of them.

10. Do the Math. Put numeric information in perspective.

11. Point B Reinforcement. Restate your call to action at several points throughout your presentation.

12. Say Your Company Name . State your company, product, or service name often.

Use these Internal Linkages liberally throughout your presentation, and make it easy for your audience to follow your flow. Let's look more closely at each of the 12 Internal Linkages, with brief examples of each.

Reference the Flow Structure

While all the other Internal Linkages below are options that you can mix and match and use as needed, the first, Referencing the Flow Structure, is not an option, but a necessity. It provides yet another way for you to bring your audience up from the level of the trees and give them a continuing view of the forest.

Here's how it works: If you've chosen Problem/Solution as the Flow Structure for your presentation, keep referring back to the problem your business is addressing. Throughout your presentation, use sentences such as, "So you can see how our unique solution addresses the problem that affects millions of people."

Similarly, if you've chosen the Opportunity/Leverage Flow Structure, keep referring back to the large opportunity that your company's products or services are deploying to leverage it.

Or, if you've chosen a Numerical Flow Structure, such as "10 Reasons to Buy from Us," then track the countdown (or count up, if you follow David Letterman) for the audience. Let them know where you are at pivotal points in your presentation: "Here's the first reason Now reason number two Finally, here's the tenth and best reason of all "

Logical Transition

The Logical Transition is the simplest and most straightforward type of Internal Linkage. It simply means clearly stating the logical connection between one idea and the next.

For example, suppose you are one of a team of presenters offering a detailed account of your company's business and future plans. If you completed your portion of the presentation by saying, "Well, that about wraps up what I have to say. Now I'd like my colleague Nancy to come up and say what she has to say," you wouldn't be making a connection between your material and Nancy's. There would be no logical transition. It would be like a relay racer dropping the baton on the track, forcing the next runner on the team to bend over to pick it up. With this awkward transition, you would let your audience slip from your navigational grasp and allow them to drift . If instead you said, "Now that you've seen the business opportunity and how we're going after it, I'm sure you'd like to know how we're positioned financially to pursue that opportunity. Our CFO Nancy will now come up and tell you." That would be a clear linkage. You would be providing closure of the outbound (your part of the presentation) and a natural lead in to the inbound (Nancy's part of the presentation). You would be passing the baton directly, and retaining your grip on the audience's attention.

Think of the Logical Transition as verbal kin to the visual Bumper slide we saw in Chapter 9. Both transitions provide the closure/lead function, clearing your audience's minds between sections of your presentation in the same way that sorbet cleanses a diner's palate between courses of a fine meal.

Cross-Reference

The Cross-Reference is another effective form of linkage. Let's say you introduce a technical concept early in the presentation, but you don't want to drill down with a detailed explanation at that point. Simply make a forward reference by saying that you'll cover the concept in greater detail later. Moreover, when you get to that concept, make a backward reference by saying, "Now let's turn to the subject I introduced earlier."

Forward and backward references are very powerful tools, if you use them properly. The forward reference, however, can backfire. How many times have you heard a presenter make a forward reference and then fail to deliver? If the audience remembers the reference and realizes that it never materialized, they feel disappointed. Even if they don't consciously remember, they will most likely have a vague feeling that "something was left out." Both alternatives alienate the audience. If you do make a forward reference, remember to complete the circuit by delivering the discussion point you promised .

By contrast, the backward reference is an almost fail-safe tool. When you link back to an idea you presented earlier in your presentation, you get to reinforce that idea. It also indicates that your material is well organized and coherent . The subliminal message: Effective Management .

When you are part of a team presentation, you can also cross-reference people. Say one another's names a couple of times during the presentation, preferably first names : "As Frank explained, our R&D division has several of the world's top experts in the field." Such statements send the message that you work well together.

Rhetorical Question

For a short, pivotal transition, you can use the Rhetorical Question. Pose a question that grows out of your outbound point or one that leads logically to your inbound point, then provide the answer.

For example, after describing what your company has done over the past year, you can transition to your future plans with the Rhetorical Question, "Where do we go from here?" After explaining how your company intends to take advantage of a major new market opportunity, you can transition to your operating plan by asking, "How are we going to implement that?" Alternatively, you can transition from your company's business results to a comparison against other companies in the field by asking, "How do we stack up against the competition?" In each case, go on to provide the answer.

Limit your use of the Rhetorical Question; too many of them can sound contrived. The wording can also sound contrived. "Have we set up customer call centers staffed by college- educated personnel to handle complex service issues?" rings artificial.

Couch your questions in terms your audience might use, such as, "How do we handle complex service issues?"

Recurring Theme

A Recurring Theme is a subject that weaves its way throughout your presentation. Let's say you used a customer anecdote about a woman named Louise King as your Opening Gambit. You can then reference Louise King, and the millions of satisfied customers like her, several times throughout your presentation. When you describe the efficiency of your manufacturing processes, you can say, "Because of the low unit cost of our product, we're able to sell it at a price that people like Louise King can afford." Or, when you explain the marketing campaign that successfully launched your product, you can say, "Louise King saw one of our full-page ads in USA Today and called the 800 number listed there."

Symmetry

An alternative use of the Recurring Theme option is to reference the theme at the beginning of your presentation, and then never mention it again until the end. This form of linkage is called Symmetry. You could cite customer Louise King in your Opening Gambit, and then at the very end say, "Remember Louise King?" The resulting bookend effect provides resolution, and therefore, subliminal satisfaction to your audience.

Mantra

A Mantra is a running phrase or slogan that you repeat several times during your presentation. This technique goes all the way back to the Greek orators, who called it anaphora .

Many modern-day orators have used the Mantra to great effect. Winston Churchill rallied the beleaguered British people during World War II with a stirring speech in which he repeated the phrase "we shall" a total of 12 times: " we shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be "

Martin Luther King, Jr., used the phrase "I have a dream" 16 times in his historic civil rights speech.

John F. Kennedy's memorable inaugural address is famous for his use of the word "ask" five times in three sentences: "And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."

What is not as famous is that, within that same 14-minute speech, Kennedy used the word "let" 16 times.

Corporations spend enormous amounts of time and money on specialized marketing consultants to develop corporate slogans or tag lines. Think of Microsoft's "Where do you want to go today?" or Cisco's "Are you ready?" or Intel's "Intel Inside."

Your Mantra needn't be just your company's slogan. You can create one that is specific to your presentation. If you were presenting your company's turnaround strategy, and the changes your company has made, you could say repeatedly, "That was then, this is now." If you were trying to persuade new customers to start a trial with your product or service, you could refer to the Chinese proverb that the journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step, and then ask your audience, several times, to take that first step.

The Mantra could just turn out to be the best- remembered phrase or sentence from your presentation, so choose it carefully . If you develop a Mantra, make it pithy, concise , and appealing. Most important, be sure that your Mantra supports your key persuasive theme: your Point B.

Internal Summary

The Internal Summary is a way of clearing your audience's minds, and cleansing their palates, by pausing at a pivotal point or two in your presentation and saying, "Let's review what we've covered so far "

Your headlong forward progress is quite well known to you, but brand new to your audience. They need a moment to digest what you've said and shown. When they don't get that moment, the result can be the MEGO syndrome, or worse , an interruption that throws your presentation off onto a tangent.

No matter how intelligent your audience, they cannot take in your ideas at the rate at which you output them. In football, the wide receivers know exactly where they are going, and the defensive backs do not, giving the receivers a distinct advantage. In football, however, each team gets a chance to switch roles. In presentations, the presenter and audience roles remain fixed, so it is essential that you give your audience the advantage by letting them know exactly where you are going at all times.

Once you've finished your brief Internal Summary, you can resume your forward progress by leading into the next section of your presentation. Think of this linkage technique as a miniature application of the Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em concept.

Enumeration

Let's say you have four new products in your product line to present. Rather than stepping through the four one at a time, tell your audience that there are four in all. Give them the forest view, rather than one tree at a time.

Introduce them as a suite: "We're announcing today a new line of four products, each targeted to a different market segment." Then discuss each one in detail as necessary: "Product A is ideal for the beginner because it offers " After discussing all four, briefly recap the whole product line: "As you can see, these four products can serve virtually anyone who needs "

Use Enumeration sparingly, however. Don't give your audience six sub-themes under each main topic, and eight sub-heads under each of the six sub-themes. Your audience can't follow your left brain thinking that far down. They can't keep track of that many levels of detail, nor should you expect them to. When you enumerate, stay with one list and count your way through it concisely.

Do the Math

When you discuss numeric information in your presentation, provide your audience with perspective by comparing, contrasting, or interpreting the numbers for them. For instance, "The debate ran 45 minutes, which means that each candidate had about 22 minutes. In tallying the total debate, and tracking the calls to action, one candidate stated his Point B 21 times and the other 27 times, an average of one Point B per minute ." Or, "Dangerous drug interactions are a serious problem. Less than one-tenth of one percent of medication prescriptions produce drug interactions serious enough to require hospitalization, but that number is 2.7 million annually. Less than two percent of these interactions are fatal, 50,000, which is more than all the people killed in auto accidents each year ."

Point B Reinforcement

As the Story Form indicates, it's important to reinforce your Point B at the beginning and end of your presentation. Experience shows that the two parts of any presentation that audiences remember best are the beginning and the end. Therefore, be sure to highlight your Point B, your call to action, in those key places.

However, in any other than the briefest presentation, you can reinforce your Point B several times. It's the best way to ensure that your audience grasps Point B, remembers it, and understands how each of your persuasive points supports it.

Say Your Company Name

When making a business presentation, it's almost unavoidable to refer to your company, so mentioning it is a natural form of linkage. However, be sure to make that reference by name: "Acme Widgets," rather than "our company," or "the company," or "we." This reinforces your company's name in your audience's minds an important consideration since so many presentations occur in competitive circumstances, such as conferences, where you are fighting for mindshare against many other companies.

It is also basic brand identity. Businesses today spend a great deal of time, effort, and money to develop their corporate image in logos, colors, and slogans; they spend even more time, effort, and money disseminating that image on everything from coffee mugs to shirts to baseball caps. It is much more time- and cost-efficient to have the company spokesperson promote the brand live and in-person.