Basic Commands

It is impossible to know how many commands the average shell citizen uses, but if we had to guess, we would place it at about 25:

• cat Prints the contents of a file

• cd Changes directories

• chmod Changes file access permissions

• cp Copies files

• du Prints disk usage

• emacs Text editor

• find Finds files by searching

• gcc The C/C++/Fortran compiler

• grep Searches for a string in input

• less Filter for paging through output

• ln Creates links between files

• locate Finds files from an index

• ls Lists files in the current directory

• make Compiles and installs programs

• man The manual page reader

• mkdir Makes directories

• mv Moves files

• ps Lists processes

• rm Deletes files and directories

• ssh Connects to other machines

• tail Prints the last lines of a file

• top Prints resource usage

• vim A text editor

• which Prints the location of a command

• xargs Executes commands from its input

Of course, many other commands are available to you that get used fairly often diff, nmap, ping, su, uptime, who, and so on but if you are able to understand the 25 listed here, you will have sufficient skill to concoct your own command combinations.

Note that we say understand the commands not know all their possible parameters and usages. This is because several of the commands, though commonly used, are used only in any complex manner by people with specific needs. gcc and make are good examples of this: Unless you plan to become a programmer, you need not worry about these beyond just typing make and make install now and then. If you want to learn more about these two, see Chapter 32, "C/C++ Programming Tools for Fedora."

Similarly, both Emacs and Vim are text editors that have a text-based interface all of their own, and SSH has already been covered in detail in Chapter 25, "Remote Access with SSH and Telnet."

What remains is 20 commands, each of which has many parameters to customize what it actually does. Again, we can eliminate much of this because many of the parameters are esoteric and rarely used, and, the few times in your Linux life that you need them, you can just read the manual page!

We will be going over these commands one by one, explaining the most common ways to use them. There is one exception to this: The xargs command requires you to understand how to join commands together, so it is bundled it in the section "Pipes and Output Redirection."

Most of these commands have been touched on elsewhere in the book, primarily in the "Using the Shell" section of Chapter 5, "First Steps with Fedora." The goal of that section was to give you "the least you need to know" to get by, whereas in this chapter each command is treated individually with an aim to giving you the confidence needed to be able to mix them together to create your own commands.

Printing the Contents of a File with cat

Many of Fedora's shell commands manipulate text strings, so if you want to be able to feed them the contents of files, you need to be able to output those files as text. Enter the cat command, which prints the contents of any files you pass to it.

Its most basic use is like this:

 cat myfile.txt 

That prints the contents of myfile.txt. For this usage there are two extra parameters that are often used: -n numbers the lines in the output, and -s ("squeeze") prints a maximum of one blank line at a time. That is, if your file has 1 line of text, 10 blank lines, 1 line of text, 10 blank lines, and so on, -s shows the first line of text, a single blank line, the next line of text, a single blank line, and so forth. When you combine -s and -n, cat numbers only the lines that are printed the 10 blank lines shown as one will count as 1 line for numbering.

This command prints information about your CPU, stripping out multiple blank lines and numbering the output:

 cat -sn /proc/cpuinfo 

You can also use cat to print the contents of several files at once, like this:

 cat -s myfile.txt myotherfile.txt 

In that command, cat merges myfile.txt and myotherfile.txt on the output, stripping out multiple blank lines. The important thing is that cat does not distinguish between the files in the output there are no filenames printed, and no extra breaks between the 2. This allows you to treat the 2 as 1 or, by adding more files to the command line, to treat 20 files as 1.

Changing Directories with cd

Changing directories is surely something that has no options, right? Not so. cd is actually more flexible than most people realize. Unlike most of the other commands here, cd is not a command in itself it is built in to bash (or whichever shell interpreter you are using), but it is still used like a command.

The most basic usage of cd is this:

 cd somedir 

That looks in the current directory for the somedir subdirectory, then moves you into it. You can also specify an exact location for a directory, like this:

 cd /home/paul/stuff/somedir 

The first part of cd's magic lies in the characters (- and ~, a dash and a tilde). The first means "switch to my previous directory," and the second means "switch to my home directory." This conversation with cd shows this in action:

 [paul@caitlin ~]$ cd /usr/local [paul@caitlin local]$ cd bin [paul@caitlin bin]$ cd - /usr/local [paul@caitlin local]$ cd ~ [paul@caitlin ~]$ 

In the first line, we change to /usr/local and get no output from the command. In the second line, we change to bin, which is a subdirectory of /usr/local. Next, cd - is used to change back to the previous directory. This time Bash prints the name of the previous directory so we know where we are. Finally, cd ~ is used to change back to our home directory, although if you want to save an extra few keystrokes, just typing cd by itself is equivalent to cd ~.

The second part of cd's magic is its capability to look for directories in predefined locations. When you specify an absolute path to a directory (that is, one starting with a /), cd always switches to that exact location. However, if you specify a relative subdirectory for example, cd subdir you can tell cd where you would like that to be relative to. This is accomplished with the CDPATH environment variable. If this variable is not set, cd always uses the current directory as the base; however, you can set it to any number of other directories.

This next example shows a test of this. It starts in /home/paul/empty, an empty directory, and the lines are numbered for later reference:

 1 [paul@caitlin empty]$ pwd 2 /home/paul/empty 3 [paul@caitlin empty]$ ls 4 [paul@caitlin empty]$ mkdir local 5 [paul@caitlin empty]$ ls 6 local 7 [paul@caitlin empty]$ cd local 8 [paul@caitlin local]$ cd .. 9 [paul@caitlin empty]$ export CDPATH=/usr 10 [paul@caitlin empty]$ cd local 11 /usr/local 12 [paul@caitlin empty]$ cd - 13 /home/paul/empty 14 [paul@caitlin empty]$ export CDPATH=.:/usr 15 [paul@caitlin empty]$ cd local 16 /home/paul/empty/local 17 [paul@caitlin local]$ 

Lines 1 3 show that we are in /home/paul/empty and that it is indeed empty ls had no output. Lines 4 6 show the local subdirectory being made, so that /home/paul/empty/local exists. Lines 7 and 8 show you can cd into /home/paul/empty/local and back out again.

In line 9, CDPATH is set to /usr. This was chosen because Fedora has the directory /usr/local, which means our current directory (/home/paul/empty) and our CDPATH directory (/usr) both have a local subdirectory. In line 10, while in the /home/paul/empty directory, we use cd local. This time, Bash switches us to /usr/local and even prints the new directory to ensure we know what it has done.

Lines 12 and 13 move us back to the previous directory, /home/paul/empty. In line 14, CDPATH is set to be .:/usr. The : is the directory separator, so this means Bash should look first in the current directory, ., and then in the /usr directory. In line 15 cd local is issued again, this time moving to /home/paul/empty/local. Note that Bash has still printed the new directory it does that whenever it looks up a directory in CDPATH.

Changing File Access Permissions with chmod

What you learned about chmod in Chapter 5 can be greatly extended through one simple parameter: -c. This instructs chmod to print a list of all the changes it made as part of its operation, which means we can capture the output and use it for other purposes. For example:

 [paul@caitlin tmp]$ chmod -c 600 * mode of `1.txt' changed to 0600 (rw-------) mode of `2.txt' changed to 0600 (rw-------) mode of `3.txt' changed to 0600 (rw-------) [paul@caitlin tmp]$ chmod -c 600 * [paul@caitlin tmp]$ 

There the chmod command is issued with -c, and you can see it has output the result of the operation: Three files were changed to rw------- (read and write by user only). However, when the command is issued again, no output is returned. This is because -c prints only the changes that it made. Files that already match the permissions you are setting are left unchanged and therefore are not printed.

There are two other parameters of interest: --reference and -R. The first allows you to specify a file to use as a template for permissions rather than specifying permissions yourself. For example, if you want all files in the current directory to have the same permissions as the file /home/paul/myfile.txt, you would use this:

 chmod --reference /home/paul/myfile.txt * 

You can use -R to enable recursive operation, which means you can use it to chmod a directory and it will change the permissions of that directory as well as all files and subdirectories under that directory. You could use chmod -R 600 /home to change every file and directory under /home become read/write to their owner.

Copying Files with cp

Like mv, which is covered later, cp is a command that is easily used and mastered. However, two marvelous parameters rarely see much use (which is a shame!) despite their power. These are --parents and -u, the first of which copies the full path of the file into the new directory. The second copies only if the source file is newer than the destination.

Using --parents requires a little explanation, so here is an example. You have a file, /home/paul/desktop/documents/work/notes.txt, and want to copy it to your /home/paul/backup folder. You could just do a normal cp, but that would give you /home/paul/backup/notes.txt, so how would you know where that came from later? If you use --parents, the file is copied to /home/paul/backup/desktop/documents/work/notes.txt.

The -u parameter is perfect for synchronizing two directories because it allows you to run a command like cp -Ru myfiles myotherfiles and have cp recopy only files that have changed. The -R parameter means recursive and allows you to copy directory contents.

Printing Disk Usage with du

The du command prints the size of each file and directory that is inside the current directory. Its most basic usage is as easy as it gets:

 du 

That outputs a long list of directories and how much space their files take up. You can modify that with the -a parameter, which instructs du to print the size of individual files as well as directories. Another useful parameter is -h, which makes du use human-readable sizes like 18M (18MB) rather than 17532 (the same number in bytes, unrounded). The final useful basic option is -c, which prints the total size of files.

So, using du we can get a printout of the size of each file in our home directory, in human-readable format, and with a summary at the end, like this:

 du -ahc /home/paul 

Two advanced parameters deal with filenames you want excluded from your count. The first is --exclude, which allows you to specify a pattern that should be used to exclude files. This pattern is a standard shell file matching pattern as opposed to a regular expression, which means you can use ? to match a single character or * to match 0 or many characters. You can specify multiple --exclude parameters to exclude several patterns. For example:

 du --exclude="*.xml" --exclude="*.xsl" 

Of course, typing numerous --exclude parameters repeatedly is a waste of time, so you can use -X to specify a file that has the list of patterns you want excluded. The file should look like this:

 *.xml *.xsl 

That is, each pattern you want excluded should be on a line by itself. If that file were called xml_exclude.txt, we could use it in place of the previous example like this:

 du -X xml_exclude.txt 

You can make your exclusion file as long as you need, or you can just specify multiple -X parameters.

TIP

Running du in a directory where several files are hard-linked to the same inode counts the size of the file only once. If you want to count each hard link separately for some reason, use the -l parameter (lowercase L).

Finding Files by Searching with find

The find command is one of the darkest and least understood areas of Linux, but it is also one of the most powerful. Admittedly, the find command does not help itself by using X-style parameters. The Unix standard is -c, -s, and so on, whereas the GNU standard is --dosomething, --mooby, and so forth. X-style parameters merge the two by having words preceded by only one dash.

However, the biggest problem with find is that it has more options than most people can remember it truly is capable of doing most things you could want. The most basic usage is this:

 find -name "*.txt" 

That searches the current directory and all subdirectories for files that end in .txt. The previous search finds files ending in .txt but not .TXT, .Txt, or other case variations. To search without case sensitivity, use -iname instead of -name. You can optionally specify where the search should start before the -name parameter, like this:

 find /home -name "*.txt" 

Another useful test is -size, which lets you specify how big the files should be to match. You can specify your size in kilobytes and optionally also use + or - to specify greater than or less than. For example:

 find /home -name "*.txt" -size 100k find /home -name "*.txt" -size +100k find /home -name "*.txt" -size -100k 

The first brings up files of exactly 100KB, the second only files larger than 100KB, and the last only files under 100KB.

Moving on, the -user option enables you to specify the user who owns the files you are looking for. So, to search for all files in /home that end with .txt, are under 100KB, and are owned by user paul, you would use this:

 find /home -name "*.txt" -size -100k -user paul 

You can flip any of the conditions by specifying -not before them. For example, you can add a -not before -user paul to find matching files owned by everyone but paul:

 find /home -name "*.txt" -size -100k -not -user paul 

You can add as many -not parameters as you need, even using -not -not to cancel each other out! (Yes, that is pointless.) Keep in mind, though, that -not -size -100k is essentially equivalent to -size +100k, with the exception that the former will match files of exactly 100KB whereas the latter will not.

You can use -perm to specify which permissions a file should have for it to be matched. This is tricky, so read carefully. The permissions are specified in the same way as with the chmod command: u for user, g for group, o for others, r for read, w for write, and x for execute. However, before you give the permissions, you need to specify either a plus, a minus, or a blank space. If you specify neither a plus nor a minus, the files must exactly match the mode you give. If you specify -, the files must match all the modes you specify. If you specify +, the files must match any the modes you specify. Confused yet?

The confusion can be cleared up with some examples. This next command finds all files that have permission o=r (readable for other users). Notice that if you remove the -name parameter, it is equivalent to * because all filenames are matched.

 find /home -perm -o=r 

Any files that have o=r set are returned from that query. Those files also might have u=rw and other permissions, but as long as they have o=r, they will match. This next query matches all files that have o=rw set:

 find /home -perm -o=rw 

However, that query does not match files that are o=r or o=w. To be matched, a file must be readable and writeable by other users. If you want to match readable or writeable (or both), you need to use +, like this:

 find /home -perm +o=rw 

Similarly, this next query matches files only that are readable by user, group, and others:

 find /home -perm -ugo=r 

Whereas this query matches files as long as they are readable by the user, or by the group, or by others, or by any combination of the three:

 find /home -perm +ugo=r 

If you use neither + or -, you are specifying the exact permissions to search for. For example, the next query searches for files that are readable by user, group, and others but not writeable or executable by anyone:

 find /home -perm ugo=r 

You can be as specific as you need to be with the permissions. For example, this query finds all files that are readable for the user, group, and others and writeable by the user:

 find /home -perm ugo=r,u=w 

To find files that are not readable by others, use the -not condition, like this:

 find /home -not -perm +o=r 

Now, on to the most advanced aspect of the find command: the -exec parameter. This enables you to execute an external program each time a match is made, passing in the name of the matched file wherever you want it. This has very specific syntax: Your command and its parameters should follow immediately after -exec, terminated by \;. You can insert the filename match at any point using {} (an opening and a closing brace side by side).

So, you can match all text files on the entire system (that is, searching recursively from / rather than from /home as in our previous examples) over 10KB, owned by paul, that are not readable by other users, and then use chmod to enable reading, like this:

 find / -name "*.txt" -size +10k -user paul -not -perm +o=r -exec chmod o+r {} \; 

When you type your own -exec parameters, be sure to include a space before \;. Otherwise, you might see an error such as missing argument to `-exec'.

Do you see now why some people think the find command is scary? Many people learn just enough about find to be able to use it in a very basic way, but hopefully you will see how much it can do if you give it chance.

Searches for a String in Input with grep

The grep command, like find, is an incredibly powerful search tool in the right hands. Unlike find, though, grep processes any text, whether in files, or just in standard input.

The basic usage of grep is this:

 grep "some text" * 

That searches all files in the current directory (but not subdirectories) for the string some text and prints matching lines along with the name of the file. To enable recursive searching in subdirectories, use the -r parameter, like this:

 grep -r "some text" * 

Each time a string is matched within a file, the filename and the match are printed. If a file contains multiple matches, each of the matches is printed. You can alter this behavior with the -l parameter (lowercase L), which forces grep to print the name of each file that contains at least one match, without printing the matching text. If a file contains more than one match, it is still printed only once. Alternatively, the -c parameter prints each filename that was searched and includes the number of matches at the end, even if there were no matches.

You have a lot of control when specifying the pattern to search for. You can, as previously, specify a simple string like some text, or you can invert that search by specifying the -v parameter. For example, this returns all the lines of the file myfile.txt that do not contain the word hello:

 grep -v "hello" myfile.txt 

You can also use regular expressions for your search term. For example, you can search myfile.txt for all references to cat, sat, or mat with this command:

 grep "[cms]at" myfile.txt 

Adding the -i parameter to that removes case sensitivity, matching Cat, CAT, MaT, and so on:

 grep -i [cms]at myfile.txt 

The output can also be controlled to some extent with the -n and --color parameters. The first tells grep to print the line number for each match, which is where it appears in the source file. The --color parameter tells grep to color the search terms in the output, which helps them stand out when amongst all the other text on the line. You choose which color you want using the GREP_COLOR environment variable: export GREP_COLOR=36 gives you cyan, and export GREP_COLOR=32 gives you lime green.

This next example uses these two parameters to number and color all matches to the previous command:

 grep -in --color [cms]at myfile.txt 

Later you will see how important grep is for piping with other commands.

Paging Through Output with less

The less command enables you to view large amounts of text in a more convenient way than the cat command. For example, your /etc/passwd file is probably more than a screen long, so if you run cat /etc/passwd, you are not able to see what the lines at the top were. Using less /etc/passwd enables you to use the cursor keys to scroll up and down the output freely. Type q to quit and return to the shell.

On the surface, less sounds like a very easy command; however, it has the infamy of being one of the few Linux commands that have a parameter for every letter of the alphabet. That is, -a does something, -b does something else, -c, -d, -e … -x, -y, -z they all do things, with some letters even differentiating between upper- and lowercase. Furthermore, it is only the parameter used to invoke less. After you are viewing your text, even more commands are available to you. Make no mistake less is a complex beast to master.

Input to less can be divided into two categories: what you type before running less and what you type while running it. The former category is easy, so we shall start there.

We have already discussed how many parameters less is capable of taking, but they can be distilled down to three that are very useful: -M, -N, and +. Adding -M (this is different from -m!) enables verbose prompting in less. Rather than just printing a colon and a flashing cursor, less prints the filename, the line numbers being shown, the total number of lines, and the percentage of how far you are through the file. Adding -N (again, this is different from -n) enables line numbering.

The last option, +, allows you to pass a command to less for it to execute as it starts. To use this, you first need to know the commands available to you in less, which means we need to move onto the second category of less input: what you type while less is running.

The basic navigation keys are the up, down, left, and right cursors; Home and End (for navigating to the start and end of a file); and Page Up and Page Down. Beyond that, the most common command is /, which initiates a text search. You type what you want to search for and press Enter to have less find the first match and highlight all subsequent matches. Type / again and press Enter to have less jump to the next match. The inverse of that is ?, which searches backward for text. Type ?, enter a search string, and press Enter to go to the first previous match of that string, or just use ? and press Enter to go to the next match preceding the current position. You can use / and ? interchangeably by searching for something with / and then using ? to go backward in the same search.

Searching with / and ? is commonly used with the + command-line parameter from earlier, which passes less a command for execution after the file has loaded. For example, you can tell less to load a file and place the cursor at the first match for the search hello, like this:

 less +/hello myfile.txt 

Or, to place the cursor at the last match for the search hello:

 less +?hello myfile.txt 

Beyond the cursor keys, the controls primarily involve typing a number and then pressing a key. For example, to go to line 50 and type 50g, or to go to the 75% point of the file and type 75p. You can also place invisible mark points through the file by pressing m and then typing a single letter. Later, while in the same less session, you can press ' (a single quote) and then type the letter, and it will move you back to the same position. You can set up to 52 marks, named a z and A Z.

One clever feature of less is that you can, at any time, press v to have your file opened inside your text editor. This defaults to Vim, but you can change that by setting the EDITOR environment variable to something else.

If you have made it this far, you can already use less better than most users. You can, at this point, justifiably skip to the next section and consider yourself proficient with less. However, if you want to be a less guru, there are two more things to learn: how to view multiple files simultaneously and how to run shell commands.

Like most other file-based commands in Linux, less can take several files as its parameters. For example:

 less -MN 1.txt 2.txt 3.txt 

That loads all three files into less, starting at 1.txt. When viewing several files, less usually tells you which file you are in, as well as numbering them: 1.txt (file 1 of 3) should be at the bottom of the screen. That said, certain things will make that go away, so you should use -M anyway.

You can navigate between files by typing a colon and then pressing n to go to the next file or p to go to the previous file; these are referred to from now on as :n and :p. You can open another file for viewing by typing :e and providing a filename. This can be any file you have permission to read, including files outside the local directory. Use Tab to complete filenames. Files you open in this way are inserted one place after your current position, so if you are viewing file 1 of 4 and open a new file, the new file is numbered 2 of 5 and is opened for viewing straight away. To close a file and remove it from the list, use :d.

Viewing multiple files simultaneously has implications for searching. By default, less searches within only one file, but it is easy to search within all files. When you type / or ? to search, follow it with a * you should see EOF-ignore followed by a search prompt. You can now type a search and it will search in the current file; if nothing is found, it looks in subsequent files until it finds a match. Repeating searches is done by press Esc and then either n or N. The lowercase option repeats the search forwards across files, and the uppercase repeats it backward.

The last thing you need to know is that you can get to a shell from less and execute commands. The simplest way to do this is just to type ! and press Enter. This launches a shell and leaves you free to type all the commands you want, as per normal. Type exit to return to less. You can also type specific commands by entering them after the exclamation mark, using the special character % for the current filename. For example, du -h % prints the size of the current file. Finally, you can use !! to repeat the previous command.

Creating Links Between Files with ln

Linux allows you to create links between files that look and work like normal files for the most part. Moreover, it allows you to make two types of links, known as hard links and symbolic links (symlinks). The difference between the two is crucial, although it might not be obvious at first!

Each filename on your system points to what is known as an inode, which is the absolute location of a file. Linux allows you to point more than one filename to a given inode, and the result is a hard link two filenames pointing to exactly the same file. Each of these files shares the same contents and attributes. So, if you edit one, the other changes because they are both the same file.

On the other hand, a symlink sometimes called a soft link is a redirect to the real file. When a program tries to read from a symlink, it automatically is redirected to what the symlink is pointing at. The fact that symlinks are really just dumb pointers has two advantages: You can link to something that does not exist (and create it later if you want), and you can link to directories.

Both types of links have their uses. Creating a hard link is a great way to back up a file on the same disk. For example, if you delete the file in one location, it still exists untouched in the other location. Symlinks are popular because they allow a file to appear to be in a different location; you could store your website in /var/www/live and an under-construction holding page in /var/www/construction. Then you could have Apache point to a symlink /var/www/html that is redirected to either the live or construction directory depending on what you need.

TIP

The shred command overwrites a file's contents with random data, allowing for safe deletion. Because this directly affects a file's contents, rather than just a filename, this means that all filenames hard linked to an inode are affected.

Both types of link are created using the ln command. By default, it creates hard links, but you can create symlinks by passing it the -s parameter. The syntax is ln [-s] <something> <somewhere>, for example:

 ln -s myfile.txt mylink 

That creates the symlink mylink that points to myfile.txt. Remove the -s to create a hard link. You can verify that your link has been created by running ls -l. Your symlink should look something like this:

 lrwxrwxrwx  1 paul paul    5 Feb 19 12:39 mylink -> myfile.txt 

Note how the file properties start with l (lowercase L) for link and how ls -l also prints where the link is going. Symlinks are always very small in size; the previous link is 5 bytes in size. If you created a hard link, it should look like this:

 -rw-rw-r   2 paul paul   341 Feb 19 12:39 mylink 

This time the file has normal attributes, but the second number is 2 rather than 1. That number is how many hard links point to this file, which is why it is 2 now. The file size is also the same as that of the previous filename because it is the file as opposed to just being a pointer.

Symlinks are used extensively in Linux. Programs that have been superseded, such as sh, now point to their replacements (in this case bash), and library versioning is accomplished through symlinks. For example, applications that link against zlib load /usr/lib/libz.so. Internally, however, that is just a symlink that points to the actual zlib library: /usr/lib/libz.so.1.2.1.2. This enables multiple versions of libraries to be installed without applications needing to worry.

Finding Files from an Index with locate

When you use the find command, it searches recursively through each directory each time you request a file. This is slow, as you can imagine. Fortunately, Fedora ships with a cron job that creates an index of all the files on your system every night. Searching this index is extremely fast, which means that, if the file you are looking for has been around since the last index, this is the preferable way of searching.

To look for a file in your index, use the command locate followed by the names of the files you want to find, like this:

 locate myfile.txt 

On a relatively modern computer (1.5GHz or higher), locate should be able to return all the matching files in under a second. The trade-off for this speed is lack of flexibility. You can search for matching filenames, but, unlike find, you cannot search for sizes, owners, access permissions, or other attributes. The one thing you can change is case sensitivity; use the -i parameter to do a case-insensitive search.

Although Fedora rebuilds the filename index nightly, you can force a rebuild whenever you want by running the command updatedb as root. This usually takes a few minutes, but when it's done the new database is immediately available.

Listing Files in the Current Directory with ls

The ls command, like ln, is one of those you expect to be very straightforward. It lists files, but how many options can it possibly have? In true Linux style, the answer is many, although again you need only know a few to wield great power!

The basic usage is simply ls, which out the files and directories in the current location. You can filter that using normal wildcards, so all these are valid:

 ls * ls *.txt ls my*ls *.txt *.xml 

Any directories that match these filters are recursed into one level. That is, if you run ls my* and you have the files myfile1.txt and myfile2.txt and a directory mystuff, the matching files are printed first. Then ls prints the contents of the mystuff directory.

The most popular parameters for customizing the output of ls are

• -a Includes hidden files.

• -h Uses human-readable sizes.

• -l A lowercase L, it enables long listing.

• -r Reverse order.

• -R Recursively lists directories.

• -s Shows sizes.

• --sort Sorts the listing.

All files that start with a period are hidden in Linux, so that includes the .gnome directory in your home directory, as well as .bash_history and the . and .. implicit directories that signify the current directory and the parent. By default, ls does not show these files, but if you run ls -a, they are shown. You can also use ls -A to show all the hidden files except . and ...

The -h parameter needs to be combined with the -s parameter, like this:

 ls -sh *.txt 

That outputs the size of each matching file in a human-readable format, such as 108KB or 4.5MB.

Using the -l parameter enables much more information about your files. Instead of just providing the names of the files, you get output like this:

 drwxrwxr-x 24 paul paul  4096 Dec 24 21:33 arch -rw-r--r--  1 paul paul 18691 Dec 24 21:34 COPYING -rw-r--r--  1 paul paul 88167 Dec 24 21:35 CREDITS drwxrwxr-x  2 paul paul  4096 Dec 24 21:35 crypto 

That shows four matches and prints a lot of information about each of them. The first row shows the arch directory; you can tell it is a directory because its file attributes starts with a d. The rwxrwxr-x following that shows the access permissions, and this has special meanings because it is a directory. Read access for a directory allows users to see the directory contents, write access allows you to create files and subdirectories, and execute access allows you to cd into the directory. If a user has execute access but not read access, he will be able to cd into the directory but not list files.

Moving on, the next number on the line is 24, which also has a special meaning for directories: It is the number of subdirectories, including . and ... After that is paul paul, which is the name of the user owner and the group owner for the directory. Next is the size and modification time, and finally the directory name itself.

The next line shows the file COPYING, and most of the numbers have the same meaning, with the exception of the 1 immediately after the access permissions. For directories, this is the number of subdirectories, but for files this is the number of hard links to this file. A 1 in this column means this is the only filename pointing to this inode, so if you delete it, it is gone.

Fedora comes configured with a shortcut command for ls -l: ll.

The --sort parameter allows you to reorder the output from the default alphabetical sorting. You can sort by various things, although the most popular are extension (alphabetically), size (largest first), and time (newest first). To flip the sorting (making size sort by smallest first), use the -r parameter also. So, this command lists all .ogg files, sorted smallest to largest:

 ls --sort size -r *.ogg 

Finally, the -R parameter recurses through subdirectories. For example, typing ls /etc lists all the files and subdirectories in /etc, but ls -R /etc lists all the files in and subdirectories in /etc, all the files and subdirectories in /etc/acpi, all the files and subdirectories in /etc/acpi/actions, and so on until every subdirectory has been listed.

Reading Manual Pages with man

Time for a much-needed mental break: The man command is easy to use. Most people use only the topic argument, like this: man gcc. However, two other commands work closely with man that are very useful whatis and apropos.

The whatis command returns a one-line description of another command, which is the same text you get at the top of that command's man page. For example:

 [paul@caitlin ~]$ whatis ls ls    (1) - list directory contents 

The output there explains what ls does but also provides the man page section number for the command so you can query it further.

On the other hand, the apropos command takes a search string as its parameter and returns all man pages that match the search. For example, apropos mixer gives this list:

 alsamixer (1) - soundcard mixer for ALSA soundcard driver mixer (1) - command-line mixer for ALSA soundcard driver aumix (1) - adjust audio mixer 

So, use apropos to help you find commands and use whatis to tell you what a command does.

Making Directories with mkdir

Making directories is as easy as it sounds, although there is one parameter you should be aware of: -p. If you are in /home/paul and you want to create the directory /home/paul/audio/sound, you will get an error like this:

 mkdir: cannot create directory `audio/sound`: No such file or directory 

At first glance this seems wrong because mkdir cannot create the directory because it does not exist. What it actually means is that it cannot create the directory sound because the directory audio does not exist. This is where the -p parameter comes in: If you try to make a directory within another directory that does not exist, like the previous, -p creates the parent directories, too. So:

 mkdir -p audio/sound 

That first creates the audio directory and then creates the sound directory inside it.

Moving Files with mv

This command is one of the easiest around. There are two helpful parameters to mv: -f, which overwrites files without asking, and -u, which moves the source file only if it is newer than the destination file. That is it!

Listing Processes with ps

This is the third and last "command that should be simple, but isn't" that is discussed here. The ps command lists processes and gives you an extraordinary amount of control over its operation.

The first thing to know is that ps is typically used with what are known as BSD-style parameters. Back in the section "Finding Files with find," we discussed Unix-style, GNU-style, and X-style parameters (-c, --dosomething, and -dosomething, respectively), but BSD-style parameters are different because they use single letters without a dash.

So, the default use of ps lists all processes that you are running that are attached to the terminal. However, you can ask it to list all your processes attached to any terminal (or indeed no terminal) by adding the x parameter: ps x. You can ask it to list all processes for all users with the a parameter or combine that with x to list all processes for all users, attached to a terminal or otherwise: ps ax.

However, both of these are timid compared with the almighty u option, which enables user-oriented output. In practice, that makes a huge difference because you get important fields like the username of the owner, how much CPU time and RAM are being used, when the process was started, and more. This outputs a lot of information, so you might want to try adding the f parameter, which creates a process forest by using ASCII art to connect parent commands with their children. You can combine all the options so far with this command: ps faux (yes, with a little imagination you spell words with the parameters!)

You can control the order in which the data is returned by using the --sort parameter. This takes either a + or a - (although the + is default) followed by the field you want to sort by: command, %cpu, pid, and user are all popular options. If you use the minus sign, the results are reversed. This next command lists all processes, ordered by CPU usage descending:

 ps aux --sort=-%cpu 

There are many other parameters for ps, including a huge amount of options for compatibility with other Unixes. If you have the time to read the man page, you should give it a try!

Deleting Files and Directories with rm

The rm command has only one parameter of interest: --preserve-root. By now, you should know that issuing rm -rf / as root will destroy your Linux installation because -r means recursive and -f means force (do not prompt for confirmation before deleting). It is possible for a clumsy person to issue this command by accident not by typing the command on purpose, but by putting a space in the wrong place. For example:

 rm -rf /home/paul 

That command deletes the home directory of the user paul. This is not an uncommon command; after you have removed a user and backed up her data, you will probably want to issue something similar. However, if you add an accidental space between the / and the h in "home", you get this:

 rm -rf / home/paul 

This time the command means "delete everything recursively from / and then delete home/paul" quite a different result! You can stop this from happening by using the --preserve-root parameter, which stops you from catastrophe with this message:

 rm: it is dangerous to operate recursively on `/' rm: use --no-preserve-root to override this failsafe. 

Of course, no one wants to keep typing --preserve-root each time they run rm, so you should add this line to the .bashrc file in your home directory:

 alias rm='rm --preserve-root' 

That alias automatically adds --preserve-root to all calls to rm in future Bash sessions.

Printing the Last Lines of a File with tail

If you want to watch a log file as it is written to, or want to monitor a user's actions as they are occurring, you need to be able to track log files as they change. In these situations you need the tail command, which prints the last few lines of a file and updates as new lines are added. This command tells tail to print the last few lines of /var/log/httpd/access_log, the Apache hit log:

 tail /var/log/httpd/access_log 

To get tail to remain running and update as the file changes, add the -f parameter (follow):

 tail -f /var/log/httpd/access_log 

You can tie the lifespan of a tail follow to the existence of a process by specifying the --pid parameter. When you do this, tail continues to follow the file you asked for until it sees that the process identified by PID is no longer running, at which point it stops tailing.

If you specify multiple files on the command line, tail follows both, printing file headers whenever the input source changes. Press Ctrl+C to terminate tail when in follow mode.

Printing Resource Usage with top

The top command is unusual in this list because the few parameters it takes are rarely, if ever, used. Instead, it has a number of commands you can use while it is running to customize the information it shows you. To get the most from these instructions, open two terminal windows. In the first, run the program yes and leave it running; in the second, switch to root, and run top.

The default sort order in top shows the most CPU-intensive tasks first. The first command there should be the yes process you just launched from the other terminal, but there should be many others also. First, we want to filter out all the other uses and focus on the user running yes. To do this, press u and enter the username you used when you ran yes. When you press Enter, top filters out processes not being run by that user.

The next step is to kill the process ID of the yes command, so you need to understand what each of the important fields means:

• PID The process ID

• User The owner of the process

• PR Priority

• NI Niceness

• Virt Virtual image size in kilobytes

• Res Resident size in kilobytes

• Shr Shared memory size in kilobytes

• S Status

• %CPU CPU usage

• %Mem Memory usage

• Time+ CPU time

• Command The command being run

Several of them are unimportant unless you have a specific problem. The ones we are interested in are PID, User, Niceness, %CPU, %MEM, Time+, and Command. The Niceness of a process is how much time the CPU allocates to it compared to everything else on the system: 19 is the lowest, and 19 is the highest.

With the columns explained, you should be able to find the process ID of the errant yes command launched earlier; it is usually the first number below PID. Now type k, enter that process ID, and press Enter. You are prompted for a signal number (the manner in which you want the process killed), with 15 provided as the default. Signal 15 (also known as SIGTERM, for "terminate") is a polite way of asking a process to shut down, and all processes that are not wildly out of control should respond to it. Give top a few seconds to update itself, and hopefully the yes command should be gone. If not, you need to be more forceful: type k again, enter the PID, and press Enter. When prompted for a signal to send, enter 9 and press Enter to send SIGKILL, or "terminate whether you like it or not."

You can choose the fields to display by pressing f. A new screen appears that lists all possible fields, along with the letter you need to press to toggle their visibility. Selected fields are marked with an asterisk and have their letter, for example:

 * A: PID        = Process Id 

If you press the a key, the screen changes to this:

 a: PID        = Process Id 

When you have made your selections, press Enter to return to the normal top view with your normal column selection.

You can also press F to select the field you want to use for sorting. This works in the same way as the field selection screen, except that you can select only one field at a time. Again, press Enter to get back to top after you have made your selection, and it will be updated with the new sorting.

If you press B, text bolding is enabled. By default, this bolds some of the header bar as well as any programs that are currently running (as opposed to sleeping), but if you press x you can also enable bolding of the sorted column. You can use y to toggle bolding of running processes.

The last command to try is r, which allows you to renice or adjust the nice value of a process. You need to enter the PID of the process, press Enter, and enter a new nice value. Keep in mind that 19 is the lowest and 20 is the highest; anything less than 0 is considered "high" and should be used sparingly.

Printing the Location of a Command with which

The purpose of which is to tell you the exact command that would be executed if you typed it. For example, which mkdir returns /bin/mkdir, telling you that running the command mkdir runs /bin/mkdir.