Cultural roots

Chinese people on the whole are not fervent adherents to any religion. Most have a practical mindset and are more concerned with earthly happiness than any spiritual quest. However, with the long history of reverence for a supernatural power derived from early Chinese civilization, superstition and animism are still occasionally present and can cause social waves. A bewildering array and variety of gods “ native, foreign, heroic and primitive “ can be found in Chinese shrines. The Chinese have long been tolerant of all religions and customs and religious wars and persecutions are rare in Chinese history.

Though officially atheist, Chinese people have been strongly influenced by two prominent schools of thought “ Taoism and Confucianism “ and by the religion of Buddhism. Taoism and Confucianism, particularly the latter, are more philosophical schools of thought than religions and are devoted to social teachings. Buddhism and Islam are formal religions. The former is widespread across the country, whereas the latter is practised mostly in the north-western regions of the country.

As an officially atheist country, social customs are viewed more as part of the culture than as rigid rules of conduct and behaviour. The Chinese are known for their benevolence and tolerance. There are few taboos and sensitive topics and 'deviant' behaviour by foreigners are generally tolerated provided they are free from ill intention . They are generally considerate when dealing with foreigners: there is a Chinese saying that 'Ignorance is excusable'.

The influence of Taoism

Taoists believe that the world is constituted by the interplay of two interacting forces, Yin and Yang . The word Tao means 'the way' or 'the path '. Every object in the universe represents the process and outcome of interplay between these two forces, one passive, the other positive. These seemingly opposite forces can coexist, although one may prevail over the other at times. Moreover, even within Yin , there contains Yang , and vice versa. The state of Yin may over time shift to Yang .

Thanks to the Taoist influence, Chinese people are highly dialectical in their judgements. Expressions such as 'on one hand. . . but on the other hand. . .' or 'yes. . . but. . .' are part of their daily language. For example, if goods are returned because of inferior quality, it is not surprising to hear a manager remark that 'this is a good thing, on the other hand, because it helps us to dig deep to the root cause of the problem'. Balance, coexistence and harmony with people, time and environment both within and outside oneself are considered to be essential constituents of a good quality of life.

For some Chinese, the practice of feng shui (literally 'wind and water', which represent harmony with the physical environment) is popular when selecting building sites and arranging offices. Chinese people tend to be less enthusiastic to take initiative, be different or be confrontational. Drafting the contract or formulating the minutes of meetings is very likely to be the job of the foreign party. 'Let's meet halfway' is a typically proposed solution by the Chinese party during business negotiations.

The influence of Confucianism

Confucius was a pragmatic philosopher obsessed with defining specific personal relationships. Based on his central doctrine of li (proper conduct), Confucius expected every person strictly to observe his or her prescribed position in the different social strata in order to maintain the 'perfect social order' into perpetuity. In Confucianism, ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother and senior and junior are specifically assigned proper rules of conduct in relation to each other. With good character and personal virtue displayed by every member of society, penal laws became unnecessary because acting contrary to li would result in the far graver moral and social sanction of shame. Without this sense of shame, however punitive the legislation may be, people would attempt to violate it.

Family is placed at the centre of society and in Confucianism, to conceal the wrongdoings of family members is righteous behaviour. Li is also addressed in dealing with friends. 'What a joy to have friends from afar!' Confucius declared. The impact of Confucianism on the Chinese mode of thinking and way of life is profound. As one author put it, China may espouse Marxist socialism, but the bedrock beneath the socialist topsoil is almost pure Confucianism. A patriarchal organizational structure, mianzi (face), reverence to seniority , unquestionable loyalty to the ruler, nepotism, hospitality and humility are all familiar terms in the Confucian vocabulary.

Geert Hofstede attributed 'Confucian Dynamism' to 'a society's search for virtue' rather than a search for truth. This explains why China has been short of solid scientific foundations despite its rich civilisation. Examinations for public offices were the only path for scholars to move into official rank, but these exams included no discipline of natural science; more attention was paid to conscience and social order. China maintained this tight superstructure throughout its history, but its foundations for natural science are weak.

In fact, the origin of Chinese scientific understanding largely lies in the Taoist alchemy: a superstitious pursuit of immortality, and the initial motivation for the grand overseas expeditions in the Ming Dynasty was neither adventure nor diplomacy but the search for the overthrown emperor who was thought to be hiding in exile . Missing out on the sweeping industrialization and renaissance in Europe, empiricism and scientific experimentation have been lacking in favour of abstract thinking and relativism. Take traditional Chinese medicine for example. Most formulas involve a compound of herbal ingredients validated by experience passed on through generations. Actual clinical studies, scientific processes, quality control and quality assurance are noticeably lacking.

The influence of Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism was imported from India in the sixth century BC and soon became entwined with native faiths. The doctrine of karma denotes fate or destiny operating by the cyclical law of causation. The present life is the result of deeds in the past life and the future life is determined by actions in the present life. To many Chinese, the law of causation is interpreted in two ways, as with the tenets of native Chinese philosophies.

The passive interpretation conforms with the Taoist wuwei (let go, or do nothing); since every individual's destiny has been predetermined, and thereby all miseries, hardships and joys should be accepted as part of one's fate. Unlike Christianity, Buddhism calls on people to eradicate all desires and retreat from worldly affairs. The fact that Buddhist temples are secluded in high mountains and Christian churches are located in pre-eminent city areas is one manifestation of this contrast.

The positive interpretation is consistent with the Confucian insistence on active social service; good deeds in the present life will be rewarded in the next life. Karma is also used to supplement Confucianism, which is rendered futile if social forces fail to enforce conformity to the prescribed ethical standards. It is at least emotionally comforting for victims of wrongdoing to believe that these wrongdoers will eventually receive adequate retribution on the strength of karmic law, when they are unable or unwilling to take positive action against them.

The confluence of Buddhism and Taoism means the Chinese are more content with the state of being than of doing. Chinese people tend to enjoy indoor activities “ playing poker games , mahjong, or simply spending hours cooking; they prefer to stay at home rather than travelling during their holidays. While none of these prevailing spiritual forces nurture entrepreneurship, they collectively breed impressive endurance during hardships or misfortunes. Chinese people have experienced so many famines, disasters and military repression over their history that they find their own path to survival in forbearance and endurance. Despite the low level of disposable income, the savings rate in China is among the highest in the world, and a large body of the elaborate national cuisine is actually a reflection of the people's capability to live through famines by using whatever materials they could lay their hands on. Apart from all kinds of plants and vegetables, as the saying goes, 'Chinese people eat anything with two legs but a man, anything with wings but a chopper, anything with four legs but a table'.