Results and Discussion

This chapter is aimed at answering the question, What do surveilled employees think about the experience? by re-analyzing a data set originally collected in 1990. Employees might experience many different feelings about different aspects of the surveillance experience, of course, so we chose to focus on how employees feel about the messages they feel being surveilled communicates to them. In other words, we sought to find what meta-messages, if any, employees detect in the act of surveillance and how they feel about those messages. We realized that feelings of lost privacy might well condition other employee feelings, so we decided to assess that first and then to turn our attention to the messages taken from surveillance and how they feel about those.

Privacy

It is not difficult to predict that surveilled employees would see their privacy as reduced when compared to those not surveilled, but finding out how they actually feel about it is a more complex issue. In 1996, Botan reported a sense of lost privacy among a random sample of 465 subjects when those who considered themselves to be heavily surveilled were compared to their counterparts who felt less surveilled.

Unreported in that article were qualitative responses to an item asking subjects to state briefly your feelings about being under surveillance at work. Not all subjects responded to the open -ended item at the end of the mail questionnaire, and it did not specifically mention privacy, but more respondents chose to address privacy than other issues. Table 1 reports responses that addressed privacy. While some subjects felt that a certain level of surveillance is acceptable (Table I, Subject IDs 105, 138, 149), many expressed anger about it (IDs 83, 101, 138, 219, 305, 329, 422, 424). Another theme in the responses was that surveillance is unproductive and often unnecessary (Table I, Subject IDs 194, 272, 328), may cause stress (IDs 140, 338), and may signal that other related management actions are in the offing (IDs 38, 120, 262). Note that even among subjects whose responses are included in Table 2 because their responses primarily addressed the meta-communication role of surveillance, privacy was a major theme (Table 2, Subject IDs 135, 159, 186, 212, 253, 255, 369, 432, and 444). In general, employees appear to feel that surveillance violates their privacy rights, and they are both worried about this and resentful of it.

Table 1: Selected privacy-centered responses

	Please state briefly your feelings about being under surveillance at work.
ID	Privacy
4	I believe that right to privacy is slowly chipped away and the workplace is the starting point of this process
38	I feel it s a direct invasion of privacy which I feel will be used in the future to get rid of selected employees for various reasons, a tool for the company to control employees
73	Surveillance is an invasion of privacy for harassment of employees and to increase quantity of work not quality
83	I feel it is an invasion of my privacy & shows how little respect my company has for my honesty & integrity. The worst jobs given to best people.
101	I feel it is a violation of my rights
105	Surveillance is fine as long as it has to do with security, but when it s used to gather information for increased productivity or monitor an individual employee s work habits I find it an invasion of privacy
120	Surveillance at work is an invasion of privacy. It is used more for disciplinary reasons rather than constructive ones.
138	Surveillance that I know about is OK. It is the surveillance that I don t know about that is totally unacceptable!
140	I feel it would cause undue stress on me. It is an invasion of my privacy. I would have enthusiasm for my job and respect for my employers .
149	If someone wants to come out and check on me, or my work, and I know it, fine. I don t want to be subjected to someone hiding or secretly watching me.
194	Invasion of my privacy. Waste of money better spent. Shows company has no trust in employees.
215	As a US citizen I feel that any surveillance on me w/out my permission is a violation of my freedoms as guaranteed by the Constitution. [my company] ROUTINELY uses cameras , video and audio monitors thru their security dept.
219	G. Orwell at its finest . Complete disregard for our constitution and all the principles for which many people died 200 years ago. Freedom and privacy are quickly vanishing in many areas of all of our lives.
226	I think it s an invasion of privacy everyone knows their job & shouldn t have to be watched.
262	It is definitely an invasion of privacy that, given corporate America s unethical behavior, could be used against employees to threaten, suspend & even terminate workers.
272	Non-productive, invasion of privacy, petty & costly.
282	I think it is an unnecessary infringement of my privacy.
297	To be under surveillance is an invasion of my privacy, and feel it is used against the employee.
305	I do feel it is an invasion of my privacy and I resent it. I also feel that there could be other ways in which they could observe us.
308	Telephone monitoring is an invasion of privacy & abused personal calls are monitored . Surveillance has already lead to emphasis on quantity, they don t care how you get rid of the work as long as it s done.
319	I feel that it is an invasion of my privacy and it should be against the law.
323	We should have a right to privacy.
328	I feel that a person of my experience does not need sneaking about to check on my work or need a babysitter . It is an invasion into the privacy of the work ethic .
329	Childish -prison- invades my privacy - we are adult. I conduct myself as an adult this stupidious is uncalled for being treated like a kindergarten school or prison .
338	I personally feel being under surveillance gives a lot of stress when stress is already taken from customer complaints all day.
343	Positively invasion of privacy. Not necessary.
350	There is a fine line between surveillance and observation & supervision. I feel that surveillance is an invasion of privacy while the latter is a necessity in many cases to insure quality, productive work operation.
356	I feel it s an invasion of my privacy. Also I feel why should the superiors know when and how many times a person goes into a building.
363	I feel it is an invasion of privacy & it promotes a lack of trust.
412	I am an accountable human being in all aspects of my job, the company will never understand this because I m not management. This is an invasion of my privacy!
422	I believe it s a legal invasion of privacy that should be made illegal.
424	I think it sucks. It s an invasion of privacy!
435	Invasion of my privacy

Table 2: Selected meta-communication centered responses

	Please state briefly your feelings about being under surveillance at work.
ID	Meta-Communication
16	I feel the company is selectively using the monitoring as a means to weed out who THEY consider potential troublemakers and apply unneeded pressure to people that make this company run
21	I feel that I am not trusted
34	I am not child on work in the USSR
36	It creates stress while working on terminal, after each transaction, the time is displayed. Makes me wonder who is watching and why.
38	I feel it s a direct invasion of privacy which I feel will be used in the future to get rid of selected employees for various reasons, a tool for the company to control employees
42	Personal surveillance to me is an indication of mistrust and an insult having an absolute negative effect on my job performance, interest, and relationship with management
64	Surveillance at work leads to stress, discontent. It makes employees feel not If company has no faith in employees why should employees be loyal. I want to do the job. I consider myself mature adult and feel I should be treated in that manner.
70	Pay and trust employees. More surveillance is a product of paranoia .
83	I feel it is an invasion of my privacy & shows how little respect my company has for my honesty & integrity. The worst jobs given to best people.
114	I would probably retire! That is in my opinion the ultimate of distrust !
127	Degrading, inhumane, non-productive and unhealthy
133	If I was I don t think I would feel trusted at work anymore.
134	Since we ve gone to this system, there has been a noticeable increase in tension on the job, a feeling of dehumanization. Just don t enjoy going to work anymore. Can t wait to get out.
135	Don t like the idea at all, it reminds me of the book 1984, where Big Brother is always watching you.
136	You can t work efficiently while having to look back over your shoulder for surveillance. Ridiculous time estimates for each job lead to shortcuts & poor quality work in order to look good on paper.
137	I m always stressed out, feels like they don t trust me. I feel like a little girl, I do a good job so stop bugging me. When there s only one supervisor on I feel at peace . Knowing they re not listening in on me.
158	I dislike the form of surveillance they do & how easy it is for them to abuse this information when they choose to. I m more concerned about other types of surveillance, that can be done without a person s knowledge or consent .
159	Constant visual surveillance is irritating , although some is acceptable. Electronic surveillance is insulting and frightening. It smacks of a Big Brother concept that has no place in the USA. Trend towards ES is abhorrent.
160	I don t feel it s necessary since we are not children that have to be checked on.
163	I think the company will use this as a way to let people go, or to reduce job titles.
165	They took the word trust out of trustworthy.
170	I feel that testing should be under surveillance to a degree. But I do not like my work load itself being watched, I feel somewhat distrusted.
178	If I can t be trusted after 23 years then I shouldn t be here. I m not a person just a number.
182	It is a sign of mistrust.
186	I feel like Big Brother is watching. Like we are slowly reverting back to the 30s & it s difficult to do the job right while looking over your shoulder.
191	Surveillance at work create added stress on the job. You can t give your best if you are not trusted.
194	Invasion of my privacy. Waste of money better spent. Shows company has no trust in employees.
201	I feel it s a violation of human rights & human dignity . The capitalist has all the power to do whatever he wants
208	I feel that we are going back to the early 1900s before we had unions. Also I believe that they will try to use surveillance info to fire people to reduce the workforce and increase profits.
212	Keep the KGB in Russia Big Brother . Surveillance sucks in America.
216	Makes me feel company can t trust employees - makes me feel like a machine - not human.
218	It demoralizes me and my fellow workers. It makes you hate to have to go to work every day. Management has no respect for us.
219	G. Orwell at its finest . Complete disregard for our constitution and all the principles for which many people died 200 years ago. Freedom and privacy are quickly vanishing in many areas of all of our lives.
223	If the company doesn t trust me after 38 years, then they should have fired me long ago. Lack of understanding and trust!
224	I don t think it s a good idea b/c if someone (a boss) doesn t like you they can build a case & fire you. Besides, I already am beginning to think I live in a police state. They are slowly but surely taking our rights away.
227	Too much stress not knowing if boss is looking or not. Can t do job properly and feel like a kid, especially when you see the boss goofing off a lot.
245	ANY ONE feel pressured and self-conscious when someone watches over their shoulder, and you don t feel trusted. A trusted, good working ADULT doesn t have to be watched.
253	I am a mature woman - I don t need a mother or big sister for my boss - boss is insecure & resents lack of employee control.
255	I feel like Big Brother is watching me (1984 by O. Wells)
258	At times it feels like I m working for the CIA where no one can be trusted.
265	The word surveillance and its meaning alone give off the feeling that you re not being trusted. You must be watched and your conversation documented for future use to eliminate another worker.
267	I think I am an adult & I do my work as well as anyone - I do not need direct supervision or surveillance or monitoring.
277	I see no reason for surveillance on my job. If they don t trust me they should say so.
281	Management is looking for quantity and care nothing for quality - everything is a numbers game.
291	It is nauseating and insulting. It aids in perpetrating the distrust and tension between employee/company.
298	Most of the time I don t care. What is annoying is the reason, which is to have someone to blame if something is wrong.
*300	I agree with your last statement. Surveillance would lead to too much emphasis on quantity not quality. (*Subject appears to be referencing the last item on the Likert-style questionnaire. See quantitative results reported in results section, others do not appear to have interpreted the questionnaire as a statement of researcher preferences.)
308	Telephone monitoring is an invasion of privacy & abused personal calls are monitored. Surveillance has already lead to emphasis on quantity, they don t care how you get rid of the work as long as it s done.
310	I understand its necessity in the business. However, it is stressful and demeaning.
328	I feel that a person of my experience does not need sneaking about to check on my work or need a babysitter. It is an invasion into the privacy of the work ethic.
329	Childish -prison- invade my privacy - we are adult. I conduct myself as an adult this stupidious is uncalled for being treated like a kindergarten school or prison.
340	I feel as though I am looked upon as an untrustworthy person. I realize there are always individuals who can t be trusted but surveillance puts me in the same category.
369	Big Brother!!!
374	Don t like the idea - would make me feel like a criminal - always being watched.
375	The only reports are to point fingers at other craftsmen, to make the reporters people look good (better). Negative feedback.
388	If I m not trusted, why am I here?
396	It tends to intimidate you to the point that you concentrate more on surveillance than your actual duties . You start to distrust more people to the point that you isolate yourself from others.
400	I believe it is unnecessary and demeaning.
401	Employer doesn t trust, respect me or have confidence in me when they surveil. People are most creative when they are not under pressure.
405	It sucks. Working for [employer] is like being employed by Adolph Hitler. Zig Heil
409	Creates a suspicious atmosphere. Loyalty is questionable. Your thought of us as a number not as an individual. No enjoyment of work. Distrustful of management statements.
413	It gives the feeling of not being trusted. I feel imprisoned in my job.
415	It is counterproductive. Because it causes distrust for both sides and if monitor system is set for marginal limits that s all that will be met, lowering quality standards.
426	Surveillance causes tremendous stress and distrust between the workforce & management. To me they don t trust me to do my job after 20 years - I cannot produce for someone who does not trust me!
432	It s like being in a [?] spy novella , being watched and listened to all day. And I m one of the good guys. Is this what Hoover s FBI was all about?
434	It means your employer doesn t trust you.
439	Shows mistrust to the employee.
440	I have a feeling of not being trusted to do my job.
444	Big Brother is watching you! No one gains from this method except perhaps nosey foremen. Abuse of phones should be directed to the guilty - they are evident without electronics!
449	I find it extremely childish - like being in school - certainly not conducive to creating good will between clerks & management. I am self motivated I do not need constant supervision to do my work!
450	Surveillance makes the employee feel mistrusted, unappreciated, and unresponsible in the eyes of the employer.

Meta-Communication

The act of surveilling also serves as a kind of meta-communication according to the panoptic metaphor and Social Power Theory, reasoned Botan and Vorvoreanu (2000), because employees interpret the power relationship embodied in surveillance as a statement about their relationship with an employer. Botan and Vorvoreanu reported five new quantitative results that supported the contention that the meta-communication role of electronic surveillance may be one of its most important dimensions. For example, more heavily surveilled employees differed from their less heavily surveilled counterparts in believing that the organization values quantity over quality (F = 11.53, p = <.001). Some qualitative responses also addressed such a meta-communication message (Table 2, Subject IDs 136, 281, 300, 308). Indeed, even some responses that were primarily about privacy perceptions suggested the same interpretations (Table 1, Subject IDs 73, 308). Possibly, in response, heavily surveilled employees reported reduced motivation to do more quantity of work (F = 15.79, p = <.001) as well as reduced motivation to do higher quality work (F = 9.23, p = <.002). This finding should motivate managers to attend to the issue of surveillance as meta-communication because it suggests that surveillance initiatives, adopted as part of thousands of corporate quality improvement drives , can act as a meta-communication that can actually convince employees that the organization is not concerned with quality, but rather with quantity.

Surveillance communicates other messages to employees as well, including some that management may or may not intend to send. For example, the overwhelming meta-message that surveillance seems to send to employees is that they are distrusted (see Table 2, Subject IDs 21, 42, 70, 83, 114, 133, 137, 165, 170, 178, 182, 191, 194, 216, 223, 245, 258, 265, 277, 291, 340, 388, 396, 401, 409, 413, 415, 426, 434, 439, 440, 450). For employees to perceive themselves as distrusted when surveilled is entirely consistent with Social Power theory. Interestingly, many employees even seem to expand this distrust theme into seeing surveillance as setting someone, possibly themselves, up for dismissal or discipline (Table 2, Subject IDs 16, 19, 36, 38, 158, 163, 208, 224, 265, 298), and this was in addition to similar comments made by those primarily addressing privacy in Table 1 (as reported above, IDs 120, 262).

Many subjects also see surveillance as communicating the fact that management feels they deserve to be treated as children (Table 2, IDs 34, 137, 160, 227, 253, 267, 328, 329, and 449). This interpretation is consistent with understanding surveillance as an expression of lack of trust, but it appears to have other dimensions as well. For example, some employees see political implications (Table 2, ID 34), employee-supervisor double standards (IDs 227, 253), and threats to employee-supervisor relations (ID 449) in surveillance.

Finally, heavily surveilled subjects reported reduced loyalty to the organization (F = 4.09, p = .044), increased stress at work (F = 7.26, p = .007), and reduced enthusiasm about even going to work (F = 9.91, p = <.002), all of which are supported by qualitative comments reported (reduced loyalty Table 2, ID 64; increased stress, IDs 16, 36, 64, 127, 134, 137, 191, 310, 426, Table 1, IDs 140, 338 as reported previously, and reduced enthusiasm, Table 2, IDs 134, 218).

Limitations

This study faced several limitations. First, we chose to reanalyze an older database on a subject ” information technology in the workplace ” which is changing rapidly . In fact, we discussed that rate of change above. It is true that more employees are surveilled today than in 1990, and even that the employees of 2004 may be more accustomed to workplace surveillance than their counterparts of 1990 were. However, we have found no reason either in theory or the literature base to believe that current employees are likely to differ fundamentally in either the messages they perceive from surveillance, or in how they feel about the experience. Second, the quantitative results reported here, although at very high probability levels, are based on small explained variances, as discussed in Botan (1996). Finally, there are several alternative hypotheses that could at least partially explain the results reported here. For example, subjects may start with a belief that the organization values quantity of work more than quality, and this could predispose them to finding the same message in surveillance. Subjects could also feel that their employer treats them like children or distrusts them, with or without surveillance, so they could naturally see surveillance as confirming such a judgment.