Job AnalysisWork Design Interventions


Job Analysis/Work Design Interventions

Job analysis is the first step in the work design process. Job analysis lists and describes the tasks required to perform a job and the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that the worker needs to perform the tasks (see Table 5-7). Once the job is analyzed , work design interventions offer alternative work structures and create blueprints for organizing jobs in a way that will maximize performance in a given organizational or work environment.

Table 5-7: JOB ANALYSIS/WORK DESIGN INTERVENTIONS COMPONENT OF THE HPT MODEL
  • Job Descriptions and Specifications

  • Job Specifications

  • Job Rotation

  • Job Enlargement

  • Work Methods

  • Quality (Control, Management, Assurance)

  • Continuous Improvement

  • Value Engineering

  • Interface Design

  • Ergonomics

  • Preventive Maintenance

  • Safety Engineering

Job Analysis Interventions

Job analysis is often seen as the cornerstone of human resource development and management functions because the information collected contributes to hiring, training, recruitment, career development, counseling , and performance management activities. Job analysis is collecting information about the duties , tasks, responsibilities, etc. for specific jobs. Human resource personnel use these data to develop job descriptions and specifications. The ultimate purpose of a job analysis is to improve organizational communication, performance, productivity, and outcomes ; it is an extension of the organization's overall mission and strategic planning efforts.

This discussion focuses on job analysis interventions, particularly job specifications and job descriptions.

Job Descriptions and Specifications

Job analysis data are used for writing job descriptions and stating job specifications. Whereas the job description describes duties, responsibilities, working conditions, and job activities, the job specifications describe the qualifications employees must have to do the job, namely, educational background, experience, knowledge, skills, abilities , etc. [35] The physical demands of a job ”working, standing, reaching, bending, lifting , etc. ”may be included in job specifications. [36]

Job specification is important because some jobs have qualifications that are set by law (medical doctor, dentist, teacher, etc.); others are required by professional judgment (a master's degree or doctorate for college-level teaching); still others are determined by the dictates of employers (typing at 110 words per minute). Job specifications must be linked to the relevancy of the job. [37]

Job Rotation

Job rotation involves moving employees from job to job within an organization for designated periods ranging from an hour or two to longer, depending on the goal. Organizations employ this strategy to familiarize employees with broad functional operations and processes and to reduce boredom. Assembly workers, for example, often rotate from one job to another on the assembly line to reduce boredom and the risk of injury . This cross-training procedure improves participants ' job skills, increases job satisfaction, and provides networking opportunities. On the negative side, job rotations may increase the workload for employees due to frequent job change. [38]

Job Enlargement

Job enlargement expands the number and variety of different tasks performed by the employee so that the job is more interesting. A salesclerk's job, for example, may be enlarged by having the individual perform inventory control and merchandise returns. A reference librarian's job may be enlarged to encompass ordering books and indexing entries. This approach can improve job satisfaction and productivity. "Job engineering focuses on the tasks to be performed, methods to be used, work flow between employees, layout of the workplace, performance standards, and inter-dependencies between people and machines." [39] Job enrichment adds tasks to employees' jobs by making them accountable and responsible for planning and executing the job. Sometimes it involves changes in how the job is done, when or where one works, or with whom one works. [40]

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Case Study: California-based Aerospace and Defense Corporation

Situation

In the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s, the large California-based aerospace and defense corporations were slowly losing market share. They began laying off large numbers of highly skilled employees. But the corporations were losing the capability to produce highly sophisticated products for a rapidly emerging and expanding competitive global market. As they continued to downsize, they lost highly skilled people in very specialized fields.

Intervention

The intervention chosen was to conduct a wide-range job and task analysis on existing jobs across the corporation's aerospace, aviation, electronics, and rock engine divisions to determine required skill sets. Then the PT practitioners analyzed and evaluated those skill sets to identify similarities. Once similarities were identified across common jobs, the jobs were combined (job enlargement) into larger work units. For example, the milling, lathe, and profiling machinists were combined to form a larger unit called machinists (network). This analysis work completed the first of two phases in the program.

The second phase entailed the development of a contextually designed assessment instrument that was a byproduct of the task analysis. The instrument consisted of a basic skills component and a technical component. Each person in the newly formed work unit was asked to complete the instrument in a classroom setting. The results of the assessment were used to determine the skill strengths and weaknesses of the employee population in each work unit and to identify where training would initially be concentrated.

To complete an analysis of this magnitude, a lead team was formed to (I) develop data collection tools that would maintain the quality and integrity of the analysis; (2) establish database systems to compare data across jobs, (3) develop training and logistical tools for analysts; (4) create common procedures to process the data after they were captured; (5) develop lines of organizational communication with regional, national, and local union members ; and (6) develop interview schedules for each of the six rounds of analysis.

During the task analysis phase, each analyst documented a set number of jobs at each of the organization's facilities. The process was straightforward and consistent; observations and interviews were common. They documented physical demands, math and reading skills, equipment and tools, safety requirements, and environmental conditions. Managers reviewed the analysts' work to verify content accuracy.

Results

After combining the jobs, the analysts sorted tasks into a hierarchy based on complexity, frequency, and criticality. This enabled the organization to employ four strategies. First, it developed contextual assessment instruments to determine each individual's level of proficiency within the newly formed unit. Second, it designed training systems to build stronger and more efficient work units. Third, it established pay scales based on the hierarchy of skills for new employees. Fourth, it updated job descriptions throughout the organization (see Job Aid 5-5).

Job Aid 5-5: TASK ANALYSIS CHECKLIST
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Directions: List the job tasks for the job identified; then check ( ¼ ) the appropriate requirements.

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ISPI 2000 Permission granted for unlimited duplication for noncommercial use .

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Lessons Learned

  1. Programs of this magnitude are often difficult to manage from a strategic and tactical viewpoint because of the many variables that may conflict with organizational communication.

  2. Communication among team members and supervisors at the different facilities needed to be encouraged. An understanding of organizational culture was important.

  3. Job analysis improved organizational communication, performance, productivity, and outcomes.

The content for the California-based Aerospace and Defense Corporation case study was contributed by David A, Grant, M.Ed., Site Manager for Raytheon Systems Company. Used with permission .

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Work Design Interventions

For purposes of this discussion, work design and job design are similar terms. How a job is designed has significant impact on the effectiveness of the organization and the quality of work life for employees. Work design should be tied directly to the strategy and goals of the organization. Job design is a blueprint of tasks required to accomplish a job successfully; its purpose is to structure the job to improve organization efficiency and employee satisfaction. Rothwell sees job design as a four-fold activity involving work duties, activities, responsibilities, and desired outcomes. [41] It determines "how the job is performed, who is to perform it, and where it is to be performed." [42] Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell see job design as a combination of four basic components , which are reflected in Figure 5-2. [43]

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Figure 5-2: COMPONENTS OF JOB DESIGN

The job design interventions selected for review are ergonomics, preventive maintenance, work methods, value engineering, safety engineering, quality (control, management, and assurance), continuous improvement, and interface design (see Table 5-7). These interventions will increase knowledge about the psychology and service components of work.

Ergonomics

The word ergonomics comes from the Greek words ergos (work) and nomos (laws). Thus, the science of ergonomics is the study of how the laws of nature affect the worker and the work environment. It is the study of the relationship between people and their occupations, equipment, and environment. It is the science of making the work that is done, and the tools that are used, compatible with the physical abilities of the person doing the work. Ergonomic principles help guide the job design process.

Current market demands require workers to work smarter instead of harder. Implementing ergonomics in the workplace is one of the best ways to minimize on-the-job stress and strain. Poor ergonomic conditions can cause cumulative trauma disorders (injuries and illnesses that affect muscles , tendons, nerves, and blood vessels, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and chronic lower back pain). At times, the PT practitioner will be called on to improve performance by fixing the workplace, not the worker.

Job design principles that will assist PT or HRD specialists are suggested by Ostrom: [44]

  1. Fit the task and the workplace to the individual.

  2. Design the workplace for people who represent a range of body sizes.

  3. Design the workplace for individuals at the extremes of the body size range. [45]

  4. Design the workplace for individuals with different physical abilities (see Job Aids 5-6 and 5-7).

    Job Aid 5-6: STUDYING A WORKSTATION

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    Directions: Check ( ¼ ) yes or no to the following questions. Then discuss the four workstation components with friends at their workstations.

    Assessment Questions

    Yes

    No

    Posture

    • Are worker ears, shoulders, and hips aligned, maintaining the back's natural curves?

       
    • Are the shoulders relaxed ?

       
    • Are forearms parallel to the floor?

       
    • Are wrists straight?

       
    • Are knees even with or slightly lower than hips?

       

    Chair

    • Is chair height adjusted so the forearms and thighs are parallel to the floor?

       
    • Is lower back fully supported?

       
    • Are feet resting comfortably on the floor or on a footrest?

       

    Work Area

    • Is screen about arm's length from the eyes?

       
    • Is a wrist rest used for support?

       
    • Are objects used frequently within easy reach?

       

    Lighting

    • Is the light from outside windows blocked to prevent glare?

       
    • Is screen free of smudges and dust?

       
    • Are contrast and brightness adjusted for maximum brightness without blurring?

       

    ISPI 2000 Permission granted for unlimited duplication for noncommercial use .

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    Job Aid 5-7: HAND AND WRIST PROTECTION FROM CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDERS

    start example

    Directions: After you read each statement, check ( ¼ ) the appropriate box. Discuss your results with a coworker.

    Guidance Checklist

    Yes

    No

    Don't Know

    • Neutral positions place least amounts of stress on hands and wrists.

         
    • Reach the most commonly used items without bending wrists.

         
    • Place frequently used items closer; less frequently used items farther away.

         
    • Sit or stand so that hands and wrists can move straight out from body toward the desired item of reach.

         
    • Better positioning reduces pressure on muscles and tendons.

         
    • Cumulative trauma disorders take months or even years to develop.

         

    ISPI 2000 Permission granted for unlimited duplication for noncommercial use .

    end example
     

Preventive Maintenance (PM)

When a child is taken to the pediatrician for a well-baby checkup, when it's time for a six-month dental cleaning, when the car is prepped for the cold winter months, preventive maintenance is engaged. PM is a proactive approach to getting things done. In a work setting, a PM schedule involves such tactics as oiling and greasing gears and machinery; checking parts for flaws, cracks, chips, and replacing them; calibrating precision tools to make certain they are functioning within established specifications; aligning vehicles and their parts to make them stable; labeling parts and fixtures; cleaning tar and grease from workstation floors; and a host of similar tasks. PM and safety engineering are workplace cousins.

Work Methods

Work methods are techniques by which an organization defines what work needs to be done and how it will be accomplished. The goal is two-fold: (1) effective use of the organization's resources consistent with its mission to maintain a competitive position and market share in a global economy and (2) effective use of people's competencies to create and deliver efficient products and services. Topics of job design and redesign, reengineering, job specialization, task simplification, repetition factors, job autonomy issues, automation, job instructions, work flow design and/or redesign processes, etc., are elements of work methods.

Value Engineering

Value engineering is determining the amount of value added to the organization by each job and unit. The nature of the work, the worker, and the workplace play significant roles in maintaining a value-engineering thrust . People in industry see it as a fancy term for cost reduction. Engineering and manufacturing personnel brainstorm ways to redesign the parts, products, processes, services, etc. Design and production engineers work together to accomplish designated goals. Value engineering is driven by customer needs and requirements.

Safety Engineering

Safety engineering is an area undergoing continual evaluation. Materials that in the past were not thought to be hazardous are now known to be dangerous, thanks to studies of their long-term effects. Some ailments are now known to be caused by acts performed or equipment used on the job. In 1970 the Occupational Safety and Health Act was passed by Congress. This act was designed to ensure every working person a safe and healthy working environment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was created to act as the administrative agency for the Occupational Safety and Health Act. Under this legislation, employers must furnish and maintain a healthful work environment, keep records of occupational injuries and illness , and comply with OSHA standards. OSHA conducts workplace inspections periodically to enforce its standards. For example, safety engineering programs focus on accidents in the workplace, asbestos, blood- borne pathogens, boiler safety, confined space entry, hearing conservation, ladder safety, rigging, hazardous materials and waste, chemicals, fires, indoor air pollution, smoking, stress, tuberculosis, violence, and other concerns such as AIDS, drug testing and rehabilitation , and fetal protection. The Japanese have an exemplary approach to improving workplace safety as reflected in Table 5-8. [46]

Table 5-8: JAPANESE SAFETY APPROACHES

Approach

Challenge

Continuous Improvement

Formal training to help managers and employees think about production processes that improve safety and health.

Morning Exercise and Safety Check

Stretching exercises and safety check (two employees check each other for safety or health problems, e.g., jewelry that might get caught in machinery).

Articulation of Hazards and Contingencies

Identify hazards involved in workstations; develop contingency plan should hazard occur.

Hazard Prediction Cards

Cards listing potential hazards are given to workers to carry.

Quality (Control, Management, and Assurance)

Of all the interventions in this chapter, the one that has received the most attention in recent years is quality. It is a popular, yet elusive concept that is an issue and concern for virtually every organization. Management defines it as a system of values, concepts, and methods for maximizing value. It is a degree of excellence. Quality is also defined by customers. To them, quality is meeting their needs to their satisfaction. Quality control is another name for total quality management. It brings together customers, employers, suppliers, and owners . It involves evaluating quality performance, comparing actual performance to quality goals, and acting on the differences.

Quality management is the process employed to facilitate communication of quality improvement functions among leaders , managers, staff, customers, and suppliers of an organization. It is guiding, collaborating, networking, risk-taking, sharing information, and team-building that lead to effectiveness. Core concepts that are part of the total quality management process are customer focus, work-as-process, continuous improvement, prevention versus correction, partnering and team effectiveness, employee empowerment, and fact-based decision making. Quality assurance is the process of setting standards and employing methodologies that work units must meet for the quality standards requirements of the organization.

Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement is doing the job right the first time. It is an ongoing, organizationwide framework in which stakeholders are committed to and involved in monitoring and evaluating all aspects of a company's activities (inputs, processes, and outputs) to continuously improve them.

No discussion of continuous improvement is complete without mention of three leaders in the quality movement: W. Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Philip B. Crosby. Deming's 14 points for quality have two major steps: (1) establish and perpetuate an environment in which quality improvement is integral to the work of all employees and (2) statistical analysis is used to support efforts to improve quality. Juran's Quality Trilogy explains quality planning, quality control, and quality improvement. Crosby, who coined the terms zero defects and do it right the first time, outlines 14 steps to quality improvement that focus on prevention and zero defects. [47]

Virtually any organization practicing continuous improvement will use some or all of the following quality tools: checksheet (data collection/analysis form), mathematical tools (scattergrams, histograms, run charts, and control charts ), cause-and-effect diagrams (fishbone), and the Pareto chart. [48]

Interface Design

When workers, machinery, and processes interact for smooth and easy, user friendly functioning, we see the results of interface design. For example, a jet plane has a complex set of electronic instructional panels, which pilots must master. The color -coded switches, knobs , and buttons that guide a pilot's choice of functions constitute interface design. The instruction manual for newly purchased stereo equipment should have solid interface design principles to ease the set-up process. Interface is also the link between two pieces of equipment and how they function, including consideration of such factors as position for ease of operation, displays, illumination , and interrelationships that minimize errors and maximize performance.

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Case Study: The Michael James Clinic

The Michael James Clinic, located in Wichita, Kansas, is a large group practice of 45 physicians. The clinic employs about 160 employees and serves a regional population of about 180,000. The clinic offers medical and surgical specialities and operates its own lab, x-ray room, and outpatient surgical center.

Situation

For some time, the clinic had been receiving complaints from its patients that appointment times were not being kept, resulting in long waits. Clinic personnel felt that delays were unavoidable because physicians needed adequate time to examine patients. This problem was further complicated by the need to accommodate emergency patients .

Intervention

A quality improvement team was charged with evaluating the process. Team members questioned some of the basic assumptions about unavoidable delays and who should be scheduling appointments. A Pareto chart was used to evaluate factors such as emergencies, central appointments, examinations times, and overbooking. A cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone graphic) was constructed to study the problem in even more detail.

Results

The quality improvement team recognized that the central appointment desk's personnel needed data on and training in how long appointments should be. Nurses needed to take a more active role in routine scheduling. Furthermore, clinic managers' and physicians' attitudes about patient service needed to change.

Lessons Learned

  • Everyone has a stake in the quality improvement process.

  • Pareto charts, cause-and-effect diagrams, checklists, and mathematical tools are staples in the toolkit of a practitioner.

  • Behavior is changed from a competitive to a collaborative approach to business.

This case study was written by James L. Moseley, Ed.D., Wayne State University. Used with permission.

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[35] Miner, 1992

[36] Shingleton, 1992

[37] Anthony, Perrewe, and Kacmar, 1996

[38] Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens, 1994

[39] Hellriegel, Slocum, and Woodman, 1995, p. 533

[40] Harris, 1997

[41] Rothwell, 1996

[42] Rue and Byars, 1989, p. 225

[43] Sherman, Bohlander, and Snell, 1996

[44] Ostrom, 1993

[45] Ostom, 1993, pp. 8 “10

[46] Neal, 1994 and Wokutch, 1994

[47] Partners in Quality , 1995

[48] Hayes, 1996




Fundamentals of Performance Technology. A Guide to Improving People, Process, and Performance
Fundamentals of Performance Technology: A Guide to Improving People, Process, and Performance
ISBN: 1890289086
EAN: 2147483647
Year: 2004
Pages: 98

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