Learning Organizations
This section deals with the concept of learning organizations in general and its application in the context of software organizations in particular. The idea of a learning organization acknowledges the fact that knowledge and information are essential assets in software organizations and should be managed as tangible assets. Many reasons support the creation of a learning organization (gaining competitive advantage, for example). One of their common aims is to tie the individual professional development of every employee to the superior economic performance of the organization ([Senge94], p. 10). This linkage is achieved by the continuous analysis of past experience and the translation of that accumulative experience into knowledge that is accessible by the entire organization, and relevant to its core purpose ([Senge94], p. 49). This basic characteristic of learning organizations is logical when we think about software learning organizations, where learning from previous experience may have direct influence on the success of future projects.
The term learning organization was coined by Peter Senge in his book The Fifth Discipline [Senge90]. According to Senge [Senge90], learning organizations are organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire and where people are continually learning to see the whole together (p. 3). In practice, learning organizations provide their employees with a working environment in which learning is an integral part of everyday work and routines. The atmosphere in such organization rewards (not necessarily financially ) employees who improve their performance, promote teamwork, and enhance the organizational targets.
The term learning organization does not refer to a specific type of organization ( hospitals , software houses , shoe manufactories, or design offices, for example) or to a specific organizational structure. Rather, a learning organization is identified by the fact that individual and collective learning are intertwined in order to improve the organization s performance. It is important to note that being a learning organization is part of the organizational culture, and thus management support in such learning-oriented activities is essential.
| Task | Skyrme [Skyrme99] says that in addition to the collective and the individual learning that characterizes learning organization, learning organizations are adaptive to their external environment and continually enhance their capability to change and to adapt to that environment. Explain how this characteristic of learning organizations may be reflected in the daily life of software developers. |
A learning organization gives its employees the feeling that their personal learning influences the organization development and that the synergy principle is applied also with respect to individual knowledge. In other words, in learning organizations it is believed that the contribution of the accumulative learning to the achievement of organizational targets is bigger than the potential contribution of the sum of the individual s knowledge. With this respect, Hedberg [Hedberg81] says that although organizational learning occurs through individuals, organizational learning is more than the commutative result of its members learning. Metaphorically, Hedberg says that organizations do not have brains , but they have cognitive systems and memories. Accordingly, just as individuals develop personalities, organizations develop world views and ideologies. Thus, although members of the organization may come and go, organizations memories preserve behaviors, norms, and values over time (page 6, in [Fiol and Lyles85], p. 804).
| Task | Suggest strategies that organizations may use to enhance organizational learning. (This issue is addressed later in this chapter.) |
According to Senge s theory, a learning organization is based on five principles, each of which creates one dimension of learning organizations. They are described in brief here:
Systems Thinking: Systems thinking is a conceptual framework based on patterns (may be complicated) that may explain different events as instances of one phenomenon . Systems thinking is about abstraction (see Chapter 11, Abstraction and Other Heuristics of Software Development ), since it helps us ignore details and examine what different events have in common. Such a perspective may improve our analysis abilities and may guide us in decision-making processes. Needless to say, such understanding is based on learning, examination, and reflection of what has happened in the past.
| Task | Give three examples related to software engineering that may fall under the umbrella of systems thinking. |
Personal Mastery: Personal mastery means learning to expand our personal capability to create the results we desire, together with creating an organizational environment in which members are encouraged to develop themselves toward the goals and purposes they choose ([Senge94], p. 6). Clearly, personal mastery connects the individual s learning with the learning of the organization.
| Task | Discuss connections between the personal mastery dimension and the Code of Ethics of Software Engineering, discussed in Chapter 5, Code of Ethics of Software Engineering. |
Mental Models: Mental models is a concept used in other learning theories as well. The discipline of mental models guides us to improve our understanding of our own mental models that guide our behavior and our conception of the world. By doing so, we may examine the nature, advantages, and disadvantages of the process we go through. Based on the lessons learned we may conclude about what future directions to adopt and follow.
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Shared Vision: Shared vision means building commitment in a group, by the development of shared images of the future the group seeks to create, and the principles and guiding practices by which the group hopes to get there ([Senge90], p. 6).
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Team Learning: The discipline of team learning combines many of the elements described in Chapter 3, Working in Teams : listening, knowledge sharing, patterns of interaction, and the way the team operates. Ideologically, Team Learning means the transformation of collective thinking skills in a way that enables groups of people to develop an ability that is greater than the sum of individual member s talents ([Senge94], p. 6).
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The preceding questions lead naturally to the discussion about the ability to share and leverage knowledge across the organization. A closely related topic is knowledge management. Knowledge management is vital in learning organizations, but it is difficult to manage knowledge. Although everyone agrees that knowledge management is about knowledge, there is no agreement on one unique definition.
The following brief explanation of the concept of knowledge management is based on the definition presented on the Knowledge Management Research Center Web site (www.cio.com/research/knowledge/edit/kmabcs.html). There is no agreement upon the definition of for knowledge management, but most definitions concur that knowledge management is the process and activities through which organizations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets. Among other things, knowledge management is based in activities that support knowledge sharing among employees, departments, and even other companies, all in an effort to create best practices. It s important to note that the definition says nothing about technology; while knowledge management is often facilitated by IT, technology by itself is not knowledge management.
| Task | Based on a Web search, find:
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Not surprisingly, technology may play a significant role in learning organizations. Among other tools, the Internet and intranets may support knowledge management processes as they invite access to information and knowledge sharing. That means, for example, that if an individual wants to access a specific piece of information (and is authorized to access it), he can access it without asking the permission of anyone who may have some difficulties with information sharing. It is easy to observe how such an environment fosters mutual information exchange and creates a suitable infrastructure for a learning organization.
Another useful tool for a learning organization is electronic discussion groups. In learning organizations, it is natural to create electronic discussion groups to foster focused discussions. This is especially relevant when a new initiative is developed and a rapid exchange of information is needed. The advantage of this type of information exchange over face-to-face interaction is that electronic discussion groups enable asynchronic interaction in time and place. It is also a useful tool when people need some time to grasp new ideas. Needless to say, face-to-face communication should not be given up; rather, the two types of interaction should be integrated.
| Task | Suggest three topics related to software development that are conducive to being discussed electronically . |
The Internet, intranets, and discussion groups are only examples of technological tools that may support the creation of learning organizations. It is important to note that it is not argued that the moment the technological infrastructure exists in an organization, the organization becomes a learning organization. What is argued is that technology is a means that can support and enhance the creation of a learning organization culture.
So far, we have discussed the concept of learning organization in general. With respect to the profession of software development, the paradigm of learning organization is reflected in the term learning software organizations. The importance of being a learning software organization is derived from the fact that software development is a competitive industry and new players can enter it with only the asset of knowledge (without any physical asset). This, together with the acknowledgment that knowledge and learning are main players in this industry, adds to the importance of the concept of learning organization in the software industry.
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Activity
Suppose you establish a software startup. Work on the following tasks:
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Describe the startup.
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Lay out the basic activities you would set up to make it a learning organization.
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Discuss what might happen if these activities are not set up when the startup is established, but rather a year later.
Discussion
Integrate the two subsections in this chapter (software engineering as a reflective practice and learning organizations) and suggest specific mechanisms by which reflective processes can be interwoven into learning organizations.
EAN: 2147483647
Pages: 242