CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

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CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

The world of business is changing rapidly as never before. Our customers are better informed and much more demanding than ever. The loyalty of our customers is something that can no longer be taken for granted and the loss of customers, sometimes known as customer churn is a subject close to the heart of most business people today. It is said that it can cost up to 10 times as much to recruit a new customer as it does to retain an existing customer. The secret is to know who our customers are (you might be surprised how many organizations don't) and what it is that they need from us. If we can understand their needs then we can offer goods and services to satisfy those needs, maybe even go a little further and start to anticipate their needs so that they feel cared for and important. We need to think about finding products for our customers instead of finding customers for our products. Every business person is very keen to advance their share of the market and turn prospects into customers, but we must not forget that each of our customers is on someone else's list of hot prospects. If we do not satisfy their needs, there are many business people out there who will. The advent of the Internet intensifies this problem; our competitors are now just one mouse click away! And the competition is appearing from the strangest places. As an example, U.K supermarkets traditionally sold food and household goods, maybe a little stationery and odds and ends. The banks and insurance companies were shocked when the supermarket chains started offering a very credible range of retail financial services and it hasn't stopped there. Supermarkets now routinely sell:

  • Mobile phones

  • White goods

  • Personal computers

  • Drugs

  • Designer clothes

  • Hi-fi equipment

The retail supermarket chains are ideally placed to penetrate almost all markets when products or services become commodity items, which, eventually, they almost always will. They have excellent infrastructure and distribution channels, not to mention economies of scale that most organizations struggle to compete with.

They also have something else ”and that is customers. The one-stop shop service, added to extremely competitive prices offered by supermarkets, is irresistible to many customers and as a result they are tending to abandon the traditional sources of these goods.

The message is clear. No organization can take its customers for granted. Any business executive who feels complacent about their relationship with their customers is likely to be heading for a fall.

So What Is CRM?

Customer relationship management is a term that has become very popular. Many businesses are investing heavily in this area. What do we mean by CRM? Well, it's really a concept, a sort of cultural and attitudinal thing. However, in order to enable us to think about it in terms of systems, we need to define it. A working definition is:

CRM is a strategy for optimizing the lifetime value of customers.

Sometimes, CRM is interpreted as a soft and fluffy, cuddly sort of thing where we have to be excessively nice to all our customers and then everything will become good. This is not the case at all. Of course, at the level of the customer facing part of our organization, courtesy , honesty, and trustworthiness are qualities that should be taken for granted. However, we are in business to make a profit. Our management and shareholders will try to see to it that we do. Studies by the First Manhattan Group have indicated that while 20 percent of a bank's customers contribute 150 percent of the profits, 40 to 50 percent of customers eliminate 50% of the profits. Similar studies reveal the same information in other industries, especially telecommunications. The graph in Figure 1.1 shows this. Notice too that the best (i.e., most profitable) customers are twice as likely to be tempted away to other suppliers as the average customer.

So how do we optimize the lifetime value of customers? It is all about these two things:

  1. Getting to know our customers better

  2. Interacting appropriately with our customers

Figure 1.1. Just who are our best customers?
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During the ordinary course of business, we collect vast amounts of information about customers that, if properly analyzed , can provide a detailed insight into the circumstances and behavior of our customers. As we come to comprehend their behavior, we can begin to predict it and perhaps even influence it a little. We are all consumers. We all know the things we like and dislike. We all know how we would like to be treated by our suppliers. Well, surprise, surprise, our customers are just like that, too!

We all get annoyed by blanket mail shots that have no relevance to us. Who has not been interrupted during dinner by an indiscriminate telephone call attempting to interest us in UPVC windows or kitchen makeovers? Organizations that continue to adopt this blanket approach to marketing do not deserve to succeed and, in the future, they and their methods will disappear. Our relationship with our customers has to be regarded more in terms of a partnership where they have a need that we can satisfy. If we show real interest in our customers and treat them as the unique creatures they are, then the likelihood is that they will be happy to continue to remain as customers.

Clearly, a business that has thousands or even millions of customers cannot realistically expect to have a real personal relationship with each and every one. However, the careful interpretation of information that we routinely hold about customers can drive our behavior so that the customer feels that we understand their needs. If we can show that we understand them and can satisfy their needs, then the likelihood is that the relationship will continue.

What is needed is not blanket marketing campaigns , but targeted campaigns directed precisely at those customers who might be interested in products on offer. The concept of personalized marketing, sometimes called one-to-one marketing epitomizes the methods that are now starting to be employed generally in the marketplace , and we'll be looking at this and other components of CRM in the following sections.

It is well known that we are now firmly embedded in the age of information. As business people we have much more information about all aspects of our business than ever before. The first-generation data warehouses were born to help us capture, organize, and analyze the information to help us to make decisions about the future based on past behavior. The idea was that we would identify the data that was needed to be gathered from our operational business systems, place it into the warehouse, and then ask questions of the data in order to derive valuable information. It will become clear, if indeed it is not already clear, that, in almost all cases, a data warehouse provides the foundation of a successful CRM strategy.

CRM is partly a cultural thing. It is a service that fits as a kind of layer between our ordinary products and services and our customers. It is the CRM culture within an organization that leads to our getting to know our customers better, by the accumulation of knowledge. Equally, the culture enables the appropriate interactions to be conducted between our organization and our customers. This is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. CRM in an organization.
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Figure 1.2 shows how the various parts of an organization fit together to provide the information we need to understand our customers better and the processes to enable us to interact with our customers in an appropriate manner. The CRM culture, attitudes, and behaviors can then be built on top of this, hopefully enhancing our customers' experiences in their dealings with us.

In the remainder of this section, we will explore the various aspects of CRM. Although this book is intended to help with the design of data warehouses, it is important to understand the business dimension. This section should be enough to help you to understand sufficiently the business imperatives around CRM, and you should regard it as a kind of rough guide to CRM. The pie diagram in Figure 1.3 shows the components of CRM.

Figure 1.3. The components of CRM.
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As you can see in Figure 1.3, there are many slices in the CRM pie, so let us review some of the major ones:

Customer Loyalty and Customer Churn

Customer loyalty and customer churn are just about the most important issues facing most business today, especially businesses that have vast numbers of customers. This is a particular problem for:

  • Telecommunications companies

  • Internet service providers

  • Retail financial services

  • Utilities

  • Retail supermarket chains

First, let us define what we mean by customer churn. In simple terms, it relates to the number of customers lost to competitors over a period of time (usually a year). These customers are said to have churned. All companies have a churn metric. This metric of churn is the number of customers lost, expressed as a percentage of the total number of active customers at the beginning of the period. So if the company had 1,000 active customers at the beginning of the year and during the year 150 of those customers defected to a competitor, then the churn metric for the company is 15 percent. Typically, the metric is calculated each month on a rolling 12-month moving average.

Some companies operate a kind of net churn metric. This is simply the number of active customers at the end of the period expressed as a percentage of the number of active customers at the beginning of the period, minus 100. So if the company starts the period with 1,000 customers and ends the period with 920 customers, then the calculation is:

(920/1000 — 100) - 100 = 8% churn

This method is sometimes favored by business executives for two reasons:

  1. It's easy to calculate. All you have to do is count the number of active customers at the beginning and end of the period. You don't have to figure out how many active customers you've lost and how many you've recruited. These kinds of numbers can be hard to obtain, as we'll see in the chapters on design.

  2. It hides the truth about real churn. The number presents a healthier picture than is the reality. Also, with this method it's possible to end up with negative churn if you happen to recruit more customers than you lose.

Great care must be taken when considering churn metrics. Simple counts are okay as a guide but, in themselves , they reveal nothing about your organization, your customers, or your relationship with your customers. For instance, in describing customer churn, several times the term active was used to describe customers. What does this mean? The answer might sound obvious but, astonishingly, in most organizations it's a devil of a job to establish which customers are active and which are not.

There are numerous reasons why a customer might defect to another supplier. These reasons are called churn factors. Some common churn factors are:

The wrong value discipline.   You might be providing a customer intimate style of service. However, customers who want quick delivery and low prices are unlikely to be satisfied with the level of service you can provide in this area. Customers are unlikely to have the same value discipline requirements for all the products and services they use. For instance, one customer might prefer a customer intimacy type of supplier to do their automobile servicing but would prefer an efficient and inexpensive supplier to service their stationery orders.

A change in circumstances.   This is a very common cause of customer churn. Your customer might simply move out of your area. They may get a new job with a much bigger salary and want to trade up to a more exclusive supplier. Maybe they need to make economies and your product is one they can live without.

Bad experience.   Usually, one bad experience won't make us go elsewhere, especially if the relationship is well established. Continued bad experiences will almost certainly lead to customer churn. Bad experiences can include unkept promises, phone calls not returned, poor quality, brusque treatment, etc. It is important to monitor complaints from customers to measure the trends in bad experiences, although the behavior of customers in this respect varies from one culture to another. For instance, in the United Kingdom, it is uncommon for people to complain. They just walk.

A better offer.   This is where your competitors have you beat. These days it is easy for companies in some industries to leap-frog each other in the services they provide and, equally, it is easy for customers to move freely from one supplier to another. A good example of this is the prepay mobile phone business. When it first came out, it was attractive because there was no fixed contract, but it placed restrictions on the minimum number of calls you had to make in any one period, say, $50 per quarter. As more vendors entered this market the restriction was driven down and down until it got to the stage where you only have to make one call in six months!

So how can you figure out which of your customers are active, which are not, and which you are at the most risk of losing? What you need is customer insight!

Customer Insight

In order to be successful at CRM, you simply have to know your customers. In fact some people define CRM as precisely that ”knowing your customers. Actually it is much more than that, but if you don't know your customers, then you cannot be successful at CRM. It's obvious really, isn't it? In order for any relationship to be successful, both participants in the relationship have to have some level of understanding so that they can communicate successfully and in a way that is rewarding for both parties. Notice the usage of the term both. Ultimately, a relationship consists of two people. Although we can say that we have a relationship with our friends, what we are actually saying is that we have a relationship with each of our friends and that results in many relationships. Each one of those relationships has to be initiated and developed, sometimes with considerable care. We invest part of ourselves , sometimes a huge amount, into maintaining the relationships that we feel are the most important. In order for the relationship to be truly successful, it has to be built on a strong foundation, and that usually means knowing as much as we can about the other person in the relationship. The more we know, the better we can be at responding to the other person's needs. Each of the parties involved in a relationship has to get some return from their investment in order to justify continuing with it.

The parallels here are obvious. Customers are people, and if we are to build a sustained relationship with them, we have to make an investment. Whereas with personal relationships, the investments we make are our time and emotion and usually we do not measure these; business relationships involve time and money, and we can and should measure them. The purpose of a business relationship is profit. If we cannot profit from the business relationship, then we must consider whether the relationship is worth the investment.

So how do we know whether our relationship with a particular customer is profitable? It's all tied in with the notion of customer insight ”knowing about our customers. Whereas our knowledge regarding our friends is mostly in our heads, our knowledge about customers is generally held in stored records. Every order, payment, inquiry, and complaint is a piece of a jigsaw puzzle that, collectively, describes the customer. If we can properly manage this information, then we can build a pretty good picture of our customers, their preferences and dislikes, their behavioral traits, and their personal circumstances. Once we have that picture, we can begin to develop customer insight. Let's look at some of the uses of customer insight, starting with segmentation.

Segmentation

Terms like knowing our customers and customer insight are somewhat abstract. As previously stated, a large company may have thousands or even millions of customers, and it is not possible to know each one personally in the same way as with our friends and family. A proper relationship in that sense is not a practical proposition for most organizations. It has been tried, however. Some banks, for instance, operate personal account managers. These managers are responsible for a relatively small number of customers, and their mission is to build and maintain the relationships by getting to know the customers in their charge. However, this is not a service that is offered to all customers. Mostly, it applies to the more highly valued customer. Even so, this service is expensive to operate and is becoming increasingly rare.

Our customers can be divided into categorized groups called segments. This is one way of getting to know them better. We automatically divide our friends into segments, perhaps without realizing that we are doing it. For instance, friends can be segmented as:

  • Males or females

  • Work mates

  • Drinking buddies

  • Football supporters

  • Evening classmates

  • Long-standing personal friends

Clearly, there are many ways of classifying and grouping people. The way in which we do it depends on our associations and our interests. Similarly, there are many ways in which we might want to segment our customers and, as before, the way in which we choose to do it would depend on the type of business we are engaged upon. There are three main types of segmentation that we can apply to customers: the customer's circumstances, their behavior, and derived information. Let's have a brief look at these three.

Circumstances

This is the term that I use to describe those aspects of the customer that relate to their personal details. Circumstances are the information that define who the customer is. Generally speaking, this type of information is customer specific and independent and has nothing to do with our relationship with the customer. It is the sort of information that any organization might wish to hold. Some obvious elements included in customer circumstances are:

  • Name

  • Date of birth

  • Sex

  • Marital status

  • Address

  • Telephone number

  • Occupation

A characteristic of circumstances is that they are relatively fixed. Some IT people might refer to this type of information as reference data and they would be right. It is just that circumstances is a more accurate layperson's description.

Some less obvious examples of circumstances are:

  • Hobbies

  • Ages of children

  • Club memberships

  • Political affiliations

In fact, there is almost no limit to the amount of information relating to circumstances that you can gather if you feel it would be useful. In the appendix to this book, I have included several hundred that I have encountered in the past. One retail bank, for some reason, would even like to know whether the customer's spouse keeps indoor potted plants.

The fact that I have described this type of information as relatively fixed means that it may well change. The reality is that some things will change and some will not. This type of data tends to change slowly over time. For instance, official government research shows that, in the United Kingdom, approximately 10 percent of people change their address each year. A date of birth, however, will never change unless it is to correct an error.

Theoretically, each of the data elements that we record about a customer could be used for segmentation purposes. It is very common to create segments of people by:

  • Sex

  • Age group

  • Income group

  • Geography

Behavioral Segmentation

Whereas a customer's circumstances tend not to relate to the relationship between us, a customer's behavior relates to their interaction with our organization. Behavior encompasses all types of interaction such as:

  • Purchases ”the products or services that the customer has bought from us.

  • Payments ”payments made by the customer.

  • Contacts ”where the customer has written, telephoned, or communicated in some other way. This might be an inquiry about product, a complaint about service, perhaps a request for assistance, etc.

The kind of segmentation that could be applied to this aspect of the relationship could be:

  • Products purchased or groups of products. For instance, an insurance company might segment customers into major product groups such as pensions, motor insurance, household insurance, etc.

  • Spending category. Organizations sometimes segment customers by spending bands.

  • Category of complaint.

Derived Segmentation

The previous types of segmentation relating to a customer's circumstances and their behavior is quite straightforward to achieve because it requires no interpretation of data about the customer. For instance, if you wish to segment customers depending on the amount of money they spend with you, then it is a simple matter of adding up the value of all the orders placed over the period in question, and the appropriate segment for any particular customer is immediately obvious.

Very often, however, we need to segment our customers in ways that require significant manipulation and interpretation of information. Such segmentation classifications may be derived from the customer's circumstances or behavior or, indeed, a combination of both.

As this book is, essentially , intended to assist in the development of data warehouses for CRM, we will return to the subject of derived segmentation quite frequently in the up coming chapters. However, some examples of derived segmentation are:

Lifetime value.   Once we have recorded a representative amount of circumstantial and behavioral information about a customer, we can use it in models to assist in predicting future behavior and future value. For instance, there is a group of young people that have been given the label young plastics (YP). The profile of a YP is someone who has recently graduated from college and is now embarking on the first few years of their working life. They have often just landed their first job and are setting about securing the trappings of life in earnest. Their adopted lifestyle usually does not quite match their current earnings, and they are often debt laden, becoming quite dependent on credit. At first glance, these people do not look like a good proposition upon which to build a business relationship. However, their long-term prospects are, statistically, very good. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to consider the potential lifetime value of the relationship and cut them some slack , which means developing products and services that are designed for this particular segment of customers.

Propensity to churn.   We have already talked about the problem of churn earlier in this chapter. If we can assess our customers in such a way as to grade them on a scale of, say, 1 to 10 where 1 is a safe customer and 10 is a customer who we are at risk of losing, then we would be able to modify our own behavior in our relationship with the customer so as to manage the risk.

Up-sell and cross-sell potential.   By carefully analyzing customers' behavior, and possibly combining segments together, it is possible to derive models of future behavior and even potential behavior. Potential behavior is a characteristic we all have; the term describes behavior we might engage in, given the right stimulus. Advertising companies stake their very existence on this. It enables us to identify opportunities to sell more products and services (up-selling) and different products and services (cross selling) to our customers.

Entanglement potential.   This is related to up-sell and cross-sell and it applies to customers who might be encouraged to purchase a whole array of products from us. Over time, it can become increasingly difficult and bothersome for the customer to disentangle their relationship and go elsewhere. The retail financial services industry is good at this. The bank that manages our checking account encourages us to pay all our bills out of the account automatically each month. This is good because it means we don't have to remember to write the checks. Also, if the bank can persuade us to buy our house insurance, contents insurance, and maybe even our mortgage from them too, then it becomes a real big deal if we want to transfer, say, the checking account to another bank. Householding is another example of this and, again, it's popular with the banks. It works by enticing all the members of a family to participate in a particular product or service so that, collectively, they all benefit from special deals such as a reduced interest rate on overdrawn accounts. If any of the family members withdraws from the service, then the deal can be revoked . This of course has an effect on the remainder of the family, and so there is an inducement to remain loyal to the bank.

Sometimes there are relationships between different behavioral components that would not be spotted by analysts and knowledge workers. In order to try to uncover these relationships we have to employ different analytic techniques. The best way to do this is to employ the services of a data mining product. The technical aspects of data mining will be described later in this book, but it is important to recognize that there are other ways of defining segments. As a rather obvious example, we can all comprehend the relationship between, say, soft fruit and ice cream, but how many supermarkets place soft fruit and ice cream next to each other? If there is a statistically significant relationship such that customers who purchase soft fruit also purchase ice cream, then a data mining product would be able to detect such a relationship. As I said, this is an obvious example, but there will be others. For instance, is there a relationship between:

  • Vacuum cleaner bags and dog food?

  • Toothpaste and garlic?

  • Diapers and beer? (Surely not!)

As we have seen, there are many ways in which we can classify our customers into segments. Each segment provides us with opportunities that might be exploited. Of course, it is the business people that must decide whether the relationships are real or merely coincidental.

Once we have identified potential opportunities, we can devise a campaign to help us persuade our target customers of the benefits of our proposal. In order to do this, it might be helpful to employ another facet of CRM, campaign management.

Campaign Management

As I see it, there are, essentially, two approaches to marketing: defensive marketing and aggressive marketing. Defensive marketing is all about keeping what we have already. For instance, a strategy for reducing churn in our customers could be regarded as defensive because we are deploying techniques to try to keep our customers from being lured by the aggressive marketing of our competitors. Aggressive marketing, therefore, is trying to get more. By more we could be referring to:

  • Capturing more customers

  • Cross-selling to existing customers

  • Up-selling to existing customers

A well-structured strategy involving well-organized and managed campaigns is a good example of aggressive marketing.

The concept of campaigns is quite simple and well known to most of us. We have all been the target of marketing campaigns at some point. There are three types of campaign:

Single-phase campaigns are usually one-off special offers. The company makes the customer, or prospect, an offer (this is often called a treatment) and if the customer accepts the offer (referred to as the response), then the campaign, in that particular case, can be regarded as having been successful. An example of this would be three months free subscription to a magazine. The publishing company is clearly hoping the customer will enjoy the magazine enough to pay for a subscription at the end of the free period.

Multi-phase campaigns, as the name suggests, involve a set of treatments instead of just one. The first treatment might be the offer of a book voucher or store voucher if the customer, say, visits a car dealer and accepts a test drive in a particular vehicle. This positive response is recorded and may be followed up by a second treatment. The second treatment could be the offer to lend that customer the vehicle for an extended period, such as a weekend . A positive response to this would result in further treatments that, in turn, provoke further responses, the purpose ultimately being to increase the sales of a particular model.

Recurring campaigns are usually running continually. For example, if the customer is persuaded to buy the car, then, shortly after, they can expect to receive a welcome pack that makes them feel they have joined some exclusive club.

Campaigns can be very expensive to execute. Typically, they are operated under very tight budget constraints and are usually expected to show a profit. This means that the cost of running the campaign is expected to be recouped out of the extra profits made by the company as a result of the campaign. The problem is: How do you know whether the sale of your product was influenced by the campaign? The people who ended up buying the product might have done so without being targeted in the campaign. The approach that most organizations adopt in order to establish the efficacy of a campaign is to identify a control group in much the same way as is done in clinical trials and other scientific experiments. The control group is identified as a percentage of the target population. This group receives no special treatments. At the end of the campaign, the two groups are compared. If, say, 2 percent of the control group purchase the product and 5 percent of the target group purchase the product, then it is assumed that the 3 percent difference was due to the influence of the campaign.

The box on the following page shows how it's figured out.

One of the big problems with campaigns, as you can see, is the minuscule responses. If the response in our example had been 4 percent instead of 5, the campaign would have shown a loss of $19,000 instead of the healthy profit we actually got. We can see that the line between profit and loss is indeed a fine line to tread. It seems obvious that careful selection of the target population is critical to success. We can't just blitz the marketplace with a carpet- bombing approach. It's all about knowing, or having a good idea, about who might be in the market to buy a car.

If you think about it, this is the most important part. And the scary thing is, it has nothing to do with campaign management. It has everything to do with knowing your customers. Campaign management systems are an important component of CRM, but the most important part, identifying which customers should be targeted, is outside the scope of most campaign management systems.


graphics/01equ01.gif

It would be really good if we could make our campaigns a little more tailored to the individual people in our target list. If the campaign had a target of one, instead of thousands, and we could be sure that this one target is really interested in the product, our chances of success would be far greater.

Personalized Marketing

Personalized marketing is sometimes referred to as a segment of one or one-to-one marketing and is the ultimate manifestation of having gotten to know our customers. Ideally, we know precisely:

  • What they need

  • When they need it

  • How much they are willing to pay for it

Then, instead of merely having a set of products that we try to sell to customers, we can begin to tailor our offerings more specifically to our customers. Some of the Internet- based companies are beginning to develop applications that recognize customers as they connect to the site and present them with content that is likely to be of interest to them. Different customers, therefore, will see different things on the same Web page depending on their previous visits. This means that the customer should never be presented with material that is of no interest to them. This is a major step forward in responding to customers' needs. The single biggest drawback is that this approach is currently limited to a small number of Internet-based companies. However, as other companies shift their business onto the Internet, then the capability for this type of solution will grow.

It is worth noting that the success of these types of application depends entirely on information. It does not matter how sophisticated the application is; it is the information that underpins it that will determine success or failure.

Customer Contact

One of the main requirements in the implementation of our CRM strategy is to get to know our customers. In order to do this we recognize the value in information. However, the information that we use tends to be collected in the routine course of daily business. For instance, we routinely store data regarding orders, invoices, and payments so that we can analyze the behavior of customers.

In virtually all organizations there exists a rich source of data that is often discarded. Each time a customer, or prospective customer, contacts the organization in any way, we should be thinking about the value of the information that could be collected and used to enhance our knowledge about the customer. Let's consider for a moment the two main types of contact that we encounter every day:

  1. Enquiries.   Every time an existing customer or prospect makes an inquiry about our products or services, we might reasonably conclude that the customer may be interested in purchasing that product or service. How many companies keep a managed list of prospects as a result of this? If we did, we would have a ready-made list for personalized campaign purposes.

  2. Complaints.   Customers complain for many reasons. Usually customers complain for good reasons, and most quality companies have a purpose built system for managing complaints. However, some customers are serial moaners and it would be good to know, when faced with people like this, what segments they are classified under and whether they are profitable or loss making. If the operators dealing with the communications had access to this information, they could respond appropriately. Remember that appropriate interaction with customers is the second main requirement in the implementation of our CRM strategy.

Principally, when we are considering customer contact, we tend to think automatically about telephone contact. These days, however, there is a plethora of different media that a customer might use to contact us. Figure 1.4 shows the major channels of contact information.

Figure 1.4. The number of communication channels is growing.
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There is quite a challenge in linking together all these channels into a cohesive system for the collection of customer contact.

There is a further point to this. Each customer contact costs money for us to deal with. Remember that the overall objective for a CRM strategy is to optimize the value of a customer. Therefore, the cost of dealing with individual customers should be taken into account if we are to accurately assess the value of customers. Unfortunately, most organizations aren't able to figure out the cost of an individual customer. What tends to happen is they sum up the total cost of customer contact and divide it by the total number of customers and use the result as customer cost. This arbitrary approach is OK for general information, but it is unsatisfactory in a CRM system where we really do want to know which are the individual customers that cost us money to service.

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Designing a Data Warehouse . Supporting Customer Relationship Management
Designing A Data Warehouse: Supporting Customer Relationship Management
ISBN: 0130897124
EAN: 2147483647
Year: 2000
Pages: 96
Authors: Chris Todman

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