6.2. Block Cipher Modes of OperationA block cipher algorithm is a basic building block for providing data security. To apply a block cipher in a variety of applications, four "modes of operation" have been defined by NIST (FIPS 81). In essence, a mode of operation is a technique for enhancing the effect of a cryptographic algorithm or adapting the algorithm for an application, such as applying a block cipher to a sequence of data blocks or a data stream. The four modes are intended to cover virtually all the possible applications of encryption for which a block cipher could be used. As new applications and requirements have appeared, NIST has expanded the list of recommended modes to five in Special Publication 800-38A. These modes are intended for use with any symmetric block cipher, including triple DES and AES. The modes are summarized in Table 6.1 and described briefly in the remainder of this section.
Electronic Codebook ModeThe simplest mode is the electronic codebook (ECB) mode, in which plaintext is handled one block at a time and each block of plaintext is encrypted using the same key (Figure 6.3). The term codebook is used because, for a given key, there is a unique ciphertext for every b-bit block of plaintext. Therefore, we can imagine a gigantic codebook in which there is an entry for every possible b-bit plaintext pattern showing its corresponding ciphertext. Figure 6.3. Electronic Codebook (ECB) ModeFor a message longer than b bits, the procedure is simply to break the message into b-bit blocks, padding the last block if necessary. Decryption is performed one block at a time, always using the same key. In Figure 6.3, the plaintext (padded as necessary) consists of a sequence of b-bit blocks, P1, P2,..., PN; the corresponding sequence of ciphertext blocks is C1, C2,..., CN. The ECB method is ideal for a short amount of data, such as an encryption key. Thus, if you want to transmit a DES key securely, ECB is the appropriate mode to use. The most significant characteristic of ECB is that the same b-bit block of plaintext, if it appears more than once in the message, always produces the same ciphertext. For lengthy messages, the ECB mode may not be secure. If the message is highly structured, it may be possible for a cryptanalyst to exploit these regularities. For example, if it is known that the message always starts out with certain predefined fields, then the cryptanalyst may have a number of known plaintext-ciphertext pairs to work with. If the message has repetitive elements, with a period of repetition a multiple of b bits, then these elements can be identified by the analyst. This may help in the analysis or may provide an opportunity for substituting or rearranging blocks. Cipher Block Chaining ModeTo overcome the security deficiencies of ECB, we would like a technique in which the same plaintext block, if repeated, produces different ciphertext blocks. A simple way to satisfy this requirement is the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode (Figure 6.4). In this scheme, the input to the encryption algorithm is the XOR of the current plaintext block and the preceding ciphertext block; the same key is used for each block. In effect, we have chained together the processing of the sequence of plaintext blocks. The input to the encryption function for each plaintext block bears no fixed relationship to the plaintext block. Therefore, repeating patterns of b bits are not exposed. Figure 6.4. Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) ModeFor decryption, each cipher block is passed through the decryption algorithm. The result is XORed with the preceding ciphertext block to produce the plaintext block. To see that this works, we can write Cj = E(K, [Cj-1 Then D(K, Cj) = D(K, E(K, [Cj-1 D(K, Cj) = Cj-1 Cj-1 D(Cj) = Cj-1 j-1 Pj To produce the first block of ciphertext, an initialization vector (IV) is XORed with the first block of plaintext. On decryption, the IV is XORed with the output of the decryption algorithm to recover the first block of plaintext. The IV is a data block that is that same size as the cipher block. The IV must be known to both the sender and receiver but be unpredictable by a third party. For maximum security, the IV should be protected against unauthorized changes. This could be done by sending the IV using ECB encryption. One reason for protecting the IV is as follows: If an opponent is able to fool the receiver into using a different value for IV, then the opponent is able to invert selected bits in the first block of plaintext. To see this, consider the following: C1 = E(K, [IV P1 = IV D(C1) Now use the notation that X[i] denotes the ith bit of the b-bit quantity X. Then P1[i] = IV[i] D(C1)[i] Then, using the properties of XOR, we can state P1[i]' = IV[i]' D(C1)[i] where the prime notation denotes bit complementation. This means that if an opponent can predictably change bits in IV, the corresponding bits of the received value of P1 can be changed. For other possible attacks based on knowledge of IV, see [VOYD83]. In conclusion, because of the chaining mechanism of CBC, it is an appropriate mode for encrypting messages of length greater than b bits. In addition to its use to achieve confidentiality, the CBC mode can be used for authentication. This use is described in Part Two. Cipher Feedback ModeThe DES scheme is essentially a block cipher technique that uses b-bit blocks. However, it is possible to convert DES into a stream cipher, using either the cipher feedback (CFB) or the output feedback mode. A stream cipher eliminates the need to pad a message to be an integral number of blocks. It also can operate in real time. Thus, if a character stream is being transmitted, each character can be encrypted and transmitted immediately using a character-oriented stream cipher. One desirable property of a stream cipher is that the ciphertext be of the same length as the plaintext. Thus, if 8-bit characters are being transmitted, each character should be encrypted to produce a cipher text output of 8 bits. If more than 8 bits are produced, transmission capacity is wasted. Figure 6.5 depicts the CFB scheme. In the figure, it is assumed that the unit of transmission is s bits; a common value is s = 8. As with CBC, the units of plaintext are chained together, so that the ciphertext of any plaintext unit is a function of all the preceding plaintext. In this case, rather than units of b bits, the plaintext is divided into segments of s bits. Figure 6.5. s-bit Cipher Feedback (CFB) ModeFirst, consider encryption. The input to the encryption function is a b-bit shift register that is initially set to some initialization vector (IV). The leftmost (most significant) s bits of the output of the encryption function are XORed with the first segment of plaintext P1 to produce the first unit of ciphertext C1, which is then transmitted. In addition, the contents of the shift register are shifted left by s bits and C1 is placed in the rightmost (least significant) s bits of the shift register. This process continues until all plaintext units have been encrypted. For decryption, the same scheme is used, except that the received ciphertext unit is XORed with the output of the encryption function to produce the plaintext unit. Note that it is the encryption function that is used, not the decryption function. This is easily explained. Let Ss(X) be defined as the most significant s bits of X. Then C1 = P1 K, IV)] Therefore, P1 = C1 K, IV)] The same reasoning holds for subsequent steps in the process. Output Feedback ModeThe output feedback (OFB) mode is similar in structure to that of CFB, as illustrated in Figure 6.6. As can be seen, it is the output of the encryption function that is fed back to the shift register in OFB, whereas in CFB the ciphertext unit is fed back to the shift register. Figure 6.6. s-bit Output Feedback (OFB) Mode |