Background

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Learning is an active, interactive, and constructive social process. Technology, especially computer technology, can help learning greatly. Initially, the learning technology focused on individualized instruction, i.e., stand-alone tutoring, a universal environment for all students. The current view of training and education environments must support customized inquiry-based learning and collaboration, and such an environment has the following advantages over the old learning technologies:

• Intelligent tutoring systems have explicit tutoring models and domain knowledge that can serve each individual in a more customized and efficient way.

• Interactive learning systems enable the student to manipulate cognitive artifacts from several perspectives or viewpoints (Norman, 1992).

• Cooperative learning systems provide students with access to other people’s ideas and concepts, and this makes it possible to exchange, discuss, negotiate, defend, and synthesize viewpoints (SIGCUE, 1992).

Also, the advances in network technology enable learners far away to communicate with each other more efficiently. A Web-based tutoring system is not only technically possible but also mostly desirable.

Another technical advance comes from object-oriented technology. An instructional technology called “learning objects” currently is the most popular choice in the next generation of instructional design, development, and delivery, due to its potential for reusability, generativity, adaptability, and scalability (Learning Technology Standards Committee).

Learning objects are elements of computer-based instruction based on the object-oriented paradigm (Wiley, 2002). The Learning Technology Standards Committee (LTSC) uses “learning objects” to describe these small instructional components and provides a working definition:

Learning Objects are defined here as any entity, digital or non-digital, which can be used, re-used or referenced during technology supported learning. Examples of technology-supported learning include computer-based training systems, interactive learning environments, intelligent computer-aided instruction systems, distance learning systems, and collaborative learning environments. Examples of Learning Objects include multimedia content, instructional content, learning objectives, instructional software and software tools, and persons, organizations, or events referenced during technology-supported learning.

“Learning” is a process in which learners obtain and understand information and knowledge from knowledge bases. How information and knowledge is acquired, stored, represented, accessed, updated, and transferred in an educational environment will determine how effective and efficient the educational system and learning process will be. According to Taylor (Taylor, n.d.), knowledge management is about using models, methods, structures, and techniques for better management and organization of resources. Knowledge management as an ongoing management process is to be embedded in the knowledge-based system. The purpose of knowledge management is to enable effective usage of information and human resources, and based upon this, to act intelligently and be more flexible, and as a result, to be able to improve basic processes of research, production, and maintenance.

Implied in the term “knowledge management” is the notion that every knowledge-based system possesses knowledge and needs mechanisms to gather, store, manipulate, and manage it in order to accomplish the most effective usage of the knowledge.

Karl Wiig described four main knowledge flows functions (Wiig, 1995):

• Building knowledge is achieved through learning, importing knowledge from existing resources, or creating new knowledge through research and development.

• Knowledge is stored in memory, knowledge bases, books or other written materials, videotaped instruction material, and organized in order to be available for specific purposes.

• Knowledge is distributed by assembling relevant knowledge from different sources and distributing it to places of use, and is pooled by assembling different persons in a team and by exchanging knowledge between them.

• Knowledge is used when it is needed to apply to work objects. Value is added by using knowledge to make products or to provide services. Here, the value of knowledge is realized.

Diana and Aroyo used Figure 1 to show where these function are fulfilled (De Diana).

Figure 1: Knowledge layer in networked education

The approach does not specify the details about communication and knowledge base management modules, and there may exist many different ways to implement them. The main advantage of using an agent-based approach in educational systems is that the central control function is devolved to different agents, and there is no need for a centralized control process to oversee the communication and interaction and database management among learners, interfaces, and databases. This results in a robust system with better performance, more availability, and a more customized student learning session (Bruff, 2000).

Diana and Aroyo (De Diana) pointed out that the main tasks and knowledge involved in education can be divided into two levels: (a) tasks and knowledge related to learning and instructional processes and (b) tasks and knowledge (knowledge about knowledge, which is knowledge about how to manage knowledge in the first level) related to the organizational and management level. This two-level model reflects the necessity to separate the knowledge to be learned from managing knowledge (metaknowledge). We will talk more about this in the following sections.

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